On the Construct Validity of Integrity Tests: Individual and Situational Factors as Predictors of Test Performance

Although integrity tests are widely applied in screening job applicants, there is a need for research for examining the construct validity of these tests. In the present study, a theoretical model examining the causes of destructive behavior in organizational settings was used to develop background data measures of individual and situational variables that might be related to integrity test scores. Subsequently, 692 undergraduates were asked to complete these background data scales along with (a) two overt integrity tests – the Reid Report and the Personnel Selection Inventory, and (b) two personality‐based measures – the delinquency and socialization scales of the California Psychological Inventory. When scores of these measures were correlated with and regressed on the background data scales, it was found that relevant individual variables, such as narcissism and power motives, and relevant situational variables, such as alienation and exposure to negative peer groups, were related to scores on both types of integrity tests. However, a stronger pattern of validity evidence was obtained for the personality‐based measures and, in all cases, situational variables were found to be better predictors than individual variables. The implications of these findings for the validity of inferences drawn from overt and personality‐based integrity tests are discussed.     

Subgroup Differences in Situational Judgment Test Performance: A Meta-Analysis

In this article, we describe a systematic review of mean race and sex differences in situational judgment test (SJT) performance. On average, White test takers perform better on SJTs than Black, Hispanic, and Asian test takers. Female examinees perform slightly better than male test takers on SJTs. We investigate two moderators of these differences: loading of g or personality on the SJT, and response instructions. Mean race differences between Black, Hispanic, Asian and White examinees in SJT performance are largely explained by the cognitive loading of the SJT such that the larger the cognitive load, the larger the mean race differences. Regarding the effect of personality loadings of SJTs on race differences, Black–White and Asian–White differences are smaller to the extent that the SJT is correlated with emotional stability and Hispanic–White differences are smaller to the extent that SJTs are correlated with conscientiousness and agreeableness. Cognitive loading has minimal effect on male–female SJT score differences; however, SJT score differences are larger, favoring women, when SJTs are correlated with conscientiousness and agreeableness. Concerning response instructions, knowledge response instructions showed greater race differences than behavioral tendency instructions. The mean correlations show that these differences are largely because of the greater g loading of knowledge instructions. A second study showed that when used in hiring, SJTs are likely to have adverse impact by race but not by sex.     

Need for Cognition and Affective Orientation as Predictors of Sales Performance: An Investigation of Main and Interaction Effects

Two constructs—need for cognition (NFC) and affective orientation (AO)—might be helpful in explaining and ultimately predicting two measures of sales performance: a self-rated behavioral measure and an objective sales measure. Specifically, we hypothesize (1) a positive relationship between NFC and sales performance; (2) a positive relationship between AO and sales performance; and (3) a positive interaction effect between NFC and AO on sales performance. The results of this study revealed both NFC and AO correlated with self-rated behavioral performance but only NFC correlated with both performance measures; suggesting that need for cognition may be the more influential of the two for sales organizations concerned with selling behaviors as well as sales outcomes. The hypothesized interaction effect was not supported.     

A Dispositional and Situational Assessment of Children's Coping: Testing Alternative Models of Coping

ABSTRACT Dispositional and situational measures of children's coping were developed using a theoretically based approach. Two studies ( N 1 = 217; N 2 = 303) assessed the psychometric characteristics of these measures in fourth- through sixth-grade children. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a four-factor model of dispositional coping (active, distraction, avoidant, and support seeking) provided a better fit to the data than either the problemversus emotion-focused (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) or passive versus active (Billings & Moos, 1981) coping models. The four-factor model was largely invariant with respect to age and gender. Moderate to high correlations were found between the parallel subscales of the dispositional and situational measures of coping. Although the four factor structures of the dispositional and situational measures were generally similar, factor loadings and correlations between dimensions were not equivalent.     

Risk-Taking and Risk-Avoiding Behavior: The Impact of Some Dispositional and Situational Variables

The purpose of this research was to assess the ability of a decision making model to correctly predict subjects' preferences for one of two alternatives; one alternative was highly valued but risky, whereas the other was less valuable but more certain. The model was based on the assumption that an additive relationship exists among self-efficacy, self-worth, and parental expectations in influencing subjects' propensity to take risks. The results suggested that the model did not work as expected. Rather, self-efficacy emerged as the principle variable influencing the risk-taking and risk-avoiding decision-making behaviors of subjects when a variety of resources were involved.     

The Dispositional Sources of Job Satisfaction: A Comparative Test

This study related three personality taxonomies—positive affectivity and negative affectivity (PA and NA), the five-factor model (the Big Five), and core self-evaluations—to job satisfaction in an integrative test. In a longitudinal design with multi-source data, results indicated that the traits from all three taxonomies generally were significantly related to job satisfaction, even when the traits and job satisfaction were measured with independent sources. However, when all three typologies were examined concurrently, the core self-evaluations typology was the only typology that was significantly related to job satisfaction. The study extends research on the validation of these frameworks by assessing convergent and discriminant validity issues, and shows that core self-evaluations adds to our understanding of the dispositional source of job satisfaction.     

Dispositional Optimism/Pessimism and Coping Strategies: Predictors of Psychosocial Adjustment of Rheumatoid and Osteoarthritis Patients1

Because rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has a more unpredictable course than osteoarthritis (OA), we hypothesized that generalized expectancies (optimistic/ pessimistic) influence the psychosocial adjustment of RA patients, whereas disease severity influences the adjustment of OA patients. Path analysis (LISREL VI) revealed that pessimistic RA patients (N= 107) and the more physically disabled OA patients (N= 108) reported poorer adjustment. The hypothesized mediating role of coping was supported for the RA but not the OA sample; that is, pessimism was associated with poor adjustment through greater use of wishful thinking coping. Unexpectedly, problem-solving coping was not found to mediate the optimism adjustment relationship.     

Cognitive Ability Tests and the Situational Interview: A Test of Incremental Validity

This study investigated the validity and incremental validity of a situational interview beyond that of a composite measure of cognitive ability. Forty-seven factory service technicians underwent an interview and took four cognitive ability tests. Supervisors rated the performance of these subjects in a concurrent validation study. The interview was found to be a valid predictor of a supervisor rating of performance (r = 0.32, p < 0.05 uncorrected), however, was unable to show incremental validity over ability tests (Incremental R²= 0.05, n.s.). Limitations of the present study and directions for future research are discussed.     

An Exploratory Model and Initial Test of the Influence of Firm Level Consulting-Oriented Sales Force Programs on Sales Force Performance

This study investigates several proposed relationships between consulting-oriented sales force programs and long run growth of industrial organizations. To operationalize the proposed model, the work introduces twenty-two new measures of consulting-oriented sales programs. Relationships are tested using a sample of industrial sales managers and corresponding, longitudinal firm performance data. Initial consulting-oriented sales training is the strongest influence on firm performance. Evidence suggests combining this training with consulting-oriented ongoing training, evaluation, and compensation programs.     

The Impact of Realistic Job Previews and Perceptions of Training on Sales Force Performance and Continuance Commitment: A Longitudinal Test

This study uses a an adaptation of the Dubinsky et al. (1986) socialization framework to test the impact of realistic job previews and perceptions of training on sales force performance and continuance commitment. Seven hundred sixty-two insurance salespeople in 54 companies were surveyed four times over a two-year period. The findings indicate that the socialization of new recruits should be focused on two parallel tracks: factors that primarily influence performance and those that primarily influence turnover.     

Predictors of Deliberate Self-Harm Behavior Among Emerging Adolescents: An Initial Test of a Self-Punitiveness Model

The current study examined the extent to which an expanded self-punitiveness model could be applied to deliberate self-harm (DSH) among students making the transition to university. Specific components of the self-punitiveness model included perfectionism, overgeneralization, self-criticism, and shame. A sample of 319 university students completed a measure of deliberate self-harm as well as two multidimensional perfectionism measures and measures of self-criticism, overgeneralization, and shame. Correlational analyses found few significant associations among deliberate self-harm and the self-punitiveness factors among men. In contrast, among women, deliberate self-harm was associated with dimensions of trait perfectionism such as parental criticism and socially prescribed perfectionism, as well as with overgeneralization, self-criticism, and both characterological shame and bodily shame with the strongest associations found with shame. Supplementary analyses found a strong link between overgeneralization and shame and an association between self-criticism and shame among women. The results support the contention that particularly among young women making the transition to university, deliberate self-harm behavior is a reflection of a self-punitive personality orientation with multiple facets and a sense of shame associated with an overgeneralized sense of failing to meet social expectations.     

Attitudes Toward Employing Persons With Disabilities: A Test of the Sympathy-Discomfort Categories

While persons with disabilities comprise approximately 17% of American and Canadian populations, they comprise a mere 3% of the workforce. This study examined the attitudes of 231 Canadian management undergraduates toward employing persons with disabilities. Participants were assigned to MacLean and Gannon's (1995) fourfold table of low-high combinations of the sympathy and discomfort scales derived from the Interaction With Disabled Persons scale (IDP; Gething, 1991). Results showed that the fourfold classification of attitudes was useful in identifying differences in attitudes, as measured by the 13-item Attitudes Toward Employing Persons With Disabilities instrument (ATEPD; Loo, 2002). Scores on the IDP and ATEPD were independent of social desirability scores. Recommendations are presented for organizations and educators to promote positive attitudes toward employees with disabilities.     

Strategies in the Information Search Process: Interaction Among Task Structure,Knowledge, and Source

The authors explored the information search strategies of 145 individuals in the predecisional stage. Decision-making participants selected pieces of information from a list including relevant and irrelevant data. The authors investigated the influence of the individual's knowledge and information source. In Experiment 1, the authors experimentally manipulated the information source reliability. The results revealed that participants tended to use a sequential strategy when the authors presented information as supplied by a reliable source. In Experiment 2, the authors analyzed the interaction between information source and the individuals' knowledge. When participants believed the source to be reliable, even knowledgeable participants adopted a strategy as sequential as that chosen by naive individuals. In Experiment 3, a mediational model corroborated the hypothesis that the search strategy affects the final judgment. The results were consistent with the constructivist framework, which emphasizes the role of individual, task, and context in the decision-making process.     

Intention and Expectation Measures as Predictors of Academic Performance1

The predictive validity of intention and expectation measures was examined by comparing subjects' intentions and expectations of their academic performance with their actual class performance. A total of 166 subjects were randomly assigned to respond to an intention or expectation version of a questionnaire. The instrument asked for intentions or expectations regarding performance on the next test, final examination, and final course grade. Expectations were found to be better predictors of academic performance. Expectation responses were also found to explain significant amounts of variance in the dependent measures after the effect of subjects' prior class performance (their first test score) had been taken into consideration. Additional types of outcomes and goals for which expectation measures are likely to provide more accurate prediction are discussed.     

The Mediating Role of Sales Behaviors: An Alternative Perspective of Sales Performance and Effectiveness

Business decisions about hiring, promoting, an purchasing should be made in an unbiassed way When sex stereotyping influences the decisio process. Such decisions are not only unfair bi can lead to large economic and social costs. A experiment involving more than 200 MBAs measured the impact of general attitudes toward women in business and various personal characteristics on the extent to which there was se stereotyping with regard to men and women in sales positions. Results suggest that sex stereotyping still exists, but its extent depends on the attitude being measured and on characteristics of the stereotyping the solution is to provide exposure to competent females in selling and sales manage ment positions.     

Managerial Structuring of Work as a Moderator of the Machiavellianism and Job Performance Relationship

In this study, we addressed the effect of the perceived work environment structure, as initiated by the managerial superior, on the relationship between Machiavellianism and job performance of store managers in a retail setting. The results showed a significant effect for managers who perceived that their supervisors initiated a loose work environment structure. No effect was found for managers working in a highly structured environment.     

Changes in Predictors of Gender Role Ideologies Among Women: A Multivariate Analysis

Using data from the National Opinion ResearchCenter's General Social Surveys for 1974-1994, weanalyze changes in gender role ideology among women inthe U.S. We focus on women tied to previous research indicating increasing labor force participationamong various groups of women such as those withpreschool children and those of Hispanic origin, and thepurported egalitarian impact of labor forceparticipation on gender role attitudes. The General SocialSurveys include 9833 women who responded to the genderrole questions, with 1132 black (11.5%) and 351 Hispanic(3.6%) women. Our results refine earlier bivariate findings about the impact of specific types oflife experiences and family power dynamics on women'sviews about appropriate roles for men and women. Mostimportantly, we find that there may be an ubiquitous shift toward more egalitarian gender roleattitudes among women in the U.S. regardless of theirindividual characteristics and circumstances.     

Sales Organization Recovery Management and Relationship Selling: A Conceptual Model and Empirical Test

This paper presents and tests a model of recovery management practices in business-to-business (B2B) sales organizations. The linkages between organic and mechanistic approaches are integrated to provide a more comprehensive conceptualization of sales organization recovery management relationships than currently exists in the literature. Responses from 177 B2B sales managers indicate that maintaining a positive service recovery culture, analyzing service failures, implementing recovery strategies, and monitoring, evaluating, and seeking feedback about recovery efforts are linked with important customer and financial outcomes. Results indicate the importance of proactive integration of service recovery concepts and behaviors into relationship selling efforts.     

The Contribution of Task Performance and Contextual Performance to Effectiveness: Investigating the Role of Situational Constraints

Task performance and contextual performance are two distinct dimensions of behaviour at work that can contribute independently to effectiveness outcomes for organisations. Contextual performance is important because it represents a type of behaviour that is largely under the motivational control of individuals. Little research has addressed how the opportunity to engage in contextual behaviours might be constrained by situational demands. This study examined the contribution of task performance and contextual performance to effectiveness in the work of air traffic controllers. As predicted, task difficulty moderated the relationship between contextual performance and effectiveness. The results demonstrate that contextual performance does contribute to effectiveness in technical domains, such as air traffic control, and highlight the importance of assessing situational factors when assessing performance and effectiveness.