Test anxiety,evaluative stress,and susceptibility to distraction from threat

Examinations are perhaps one of the main methods of assessment in education. Unfortunately, there are some individuals who are so fearful of such events that performance is impaired. Test anxiety is believed to be the trait that predisposes individuals to react negatively to examinations and tests. One way in which it is believed that test anxiety affects performance is by increasing susceptibility to distraction from task‐irrelevant material. However, few studies have directly investigated this impairment. An experiment was therefore conducted to investigate susceptibility to distraction in high and low test‐anxious students. The task used was based on one developed by Mathews, May, Mogg and Eysenck (1990), which distinguishes between focused attention and selective search. In order to determine whether a specific susceptibility to distraction exists, the distractors were varied in terms of valence and relevance to examinations. Since test anxiety is a situation‐specific trait, an evaluation‐related stressor was used to trigger test‐anxious reactions. A specific susceptibility to distraction from threat was found amongst high test‐anxious participants who received the evaluation‐related stressor. However, this effect was only found when participants were using focused attention. This suggests that the disturbed performance often found to be associated with test anxiety might be due to an inability to ignore threatening material when attempting to focus attentional resources. These results are discussed in light of current theories of test anxiety and implications for educational practice. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Instruction in learning a temporal pattern on an anticipation-coincidence task

Using a computer-simulated anticipation-coincidence task, the main aim of the study was to examine the effect of the type of instruction on learning a temporal pattern. For this task, participants must learn to anticipate the appropriate time to launch a projectile to hit a moving target. The experiment involved three instructional conditions. In the Explicit-rule Discover Instruction Condition participants were informed that target speed could change from trial to trial and that change is controlled by a regular pattern. Their task was then to search, to identify, and to use such pattern to enhance their anticipation. In the Explicit-Informative Instruction Condition, participants were, however, allowed before practice to examine attentively the regular pattern. Participants were also explicitly urged to use the pattern they observed to ensure a better interception of the target. Finally, in the Implicit Instruction Condition, participants were only informed that their task was to hit, or at least, to place the projectile as near as possible to the target. No additional information was provied about the target's behaviour. Analysis indicated that learning the temporal pattern was more important in Implicit than in Explicit-rule Discover Instruction Condion. However, the Explicit-Informative Instruction Condition produced unambiguouslly the highest learning. Overall, the study highlights the role of information over guidance in the understanding of the effect of the instructions on learning. Finally, we discussed the implications of these results on the comprehension of the variability of the effects of the instruction on learning.     

From Eyewitness to Academic Contexts: Examining the Effect of Misinformation in First and Second Languages

The present study adapts the typical eyewitness misinformation paradigm into an academic context. Unbalanced English–Spanish bilinguals (N = 81) listened to a lecture in English (L1) or Spanish (L2), read notes in L1 or L2, and completed a forced‐choice recognition test in the lecture language. Unlike prior studies with proficient bilinguals, unbalanced English‐dominant participants showed greater recognition memory accuracy for material presented in English only than did material presented in Spanish only. English misinformation had a greater impact on memory for the Spanish lecture than vice versa. Most importantly, the modified misinformation paradigm is an effective tool to investigate academic misinformation effects and could be used in bilingual and monolingual research. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attachment and behavioral addictions in adolescents: The mediating and moderating role of coping strategies

Gambling, video gaming, and Internet use are typically included as everyday activities that could potentially become behavioral addictions. There is growing evidence that views non‐substance related addictions as coping mechanisms, and considers that attachment styles are likely to play a pivotal role on the development of such addictions, especially on young people. Therefore, the present study aimed to: (1) explore the association between attachment, coping, and behavioral addictions (i.e., gambling disorder, video game addiction, and problematic Internet use); and (2) to analyze the mediating/moderating effect that coping has in the relationship of attachment and these behavioral addictions. A sample consisting of 472 students from secondary education (Mean age = 15.6; SD = 1.33; 51.6% females) was recruited. The findings showed a negative association between attachment and behavioral addictions. Most coping strategies were found to be associated with attachment styles, except for self‐critique and emotional avoidance. In particular, problem avoidance was significantly correlated to all behavioral addictions. In addition, self‐blame and problem solving were significantly correlated to video game addiction and problematic Internet use. Finally, coping was found to act as a mediator and moderator between attachment and video game addiction and problematic Internet use.     

Viewing oneself during synchronous online learning increases appearance anxiety and decreases memory for lecture content

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, instructors began using online learning platforms to offer live remote instruction (e.g., Zoom), which allow students to view themselves in real-time (i.e., self-view). The present research examined whether having students keep their cameras on, relative to cameras off, during a live online lecture would increase anxiety and reduce learning. In both Experiment 1a (small group setting) and Experiment 1b (large group setting), students in the camera-on condition did not report greater state anxiety, nor was anxiety associated with lower performance on an immediate multiple-choice exam. Experiment 2 specifically examined the effect of self-view and if appearance anxiety (rather than state anxiety) might mediate the relationship between camera use and test performance. Results indicate that participants viewing themselves reported significantly higher appearance anxiety, and that higher appearance anxiety was related to decreased learning. These findings suggest that viewing oneself may uniquely contribute to heightened appearance anxiety and may reduce memory for content when learning synchronously online.     

No evidence that alcohol intoxication impairs judgments of learning in face recognition

Alcohol use is frequently involved in crime, making it crucial to understand the role of alcohol in facial recognition to maximize correct perpetrator identifications. Although the majority of the alcohol and face recognition research has investigated recognition with retrospective confidence judgments, we examined the effects of alcohol intoxication on face recognition with prospective metacognitive judgments. Participants (N = 54 university students without a history of hazardous alcohol/substance use) consumed either alcohol (mean breath alcohol concentration of 0.06 at pretest and 0.07 at post‐test) or a non‐alcoholic placebo drink. Participants then studied unfamiliar male and female faces and made judgments of learning (JOLs) for each face (i.e., predicted the likelihood of recognizing that face on a future memory test). After a brief distractor task, participants completed an old–new recognition test on which they attempted to distinguish the studied faces from new faces. It was found that the alcohol manipulation had minimal effect on face recognition performance or judgments of learning. Our results suggest that theory‐based cues about the effects of alcohol might play a greater role in retrospective judgments than prospective judgments. Although not a primary focus of the study, face recognition was better for male faces than female faces, and this occurred for both female and male participants. Limitations and implications of the research are discussed.     

Student's metamemory knowledge about the impact of stereoscopic three‐dimensional presentations of science content

We investigated students' knowledge and beliefs about the impact of using three‐dimensional (3D) multimedia presentations. Students listened to a lecture about the ventricular system, which was presented alone (Experiment 1 only) or with a 3D or a 2D video illustrating the system. Afterwards, students judged how well they would perform on a criterion test. In Experiment 1, students judged that the 3D presentation would be superior to listening to the lecture alone (d = 0.81). Mean judgments were higher for the 3D than 2D presentation (d = 0.24), but this difference was not significant, so we estimated the effect size again. In Experiment 2, judgments were significantly higher after the 3D than 2D presentations (d = 0.40). Test performance was not significantly greater after the 3D than 2D presentations. A survey study again revealed that students believe 3D presentations are superior, and most students reported preferring them to 2D presentations.     

The two sides of competition: Competition‐induced effort and affect during intergroup versus interindividual competition

Competition strongly affects individual effort and performance for both individuals and groups. Especially in work settings, these effort gains might come at the cost of individual well‐being. The present study tested whether competition increases both effort (as indicated by task performance) and stress (in terms of cardiovascular reactivity and affective response), and whether this effect is further qualified by the type of competition (interindividual vs. intergroup), using a cognitive computer‐based task and a 2 (Group: Yes, No) × 2 (Competition: Yes, No) × 2 (Gender) factorial design (N= 147). All participants either worked as a representative of a group or as an individual, and were offered performance‐related incentives distributed in a lottery. In the competition conditions, participants were informed that they competed with someone else, and that only the winning person/team would take part in the lottery. Consistent with expectations, competition increased both individual effort and cardiovascular reactivity compared to non‐competitive work. Moreover, for female participants, intergroup competition triggered increased effort and more positive affect than interindividual competition. Aside from documenting costly side‐effects of competition in terms of stress, this study provides evidence for a stress‐related explanation of effort gains during intergroup competition as compared to interindividual competition.     

Environmental Visual Distraction during Retrieval Affects the Quality,Not the Quantity,of Eyewitness Recall

Eyewitnesses instructed to close their eyes during retrieval remember more correct, and fewer incorrect, visual and auditory details. These effects are assumed to arise because eye‐closure reduces distraction from the retrieval environment, and so increased environmental distraction should have the reverse effects. To test this idea, 48 participants witnessed a video clip before verbally answering questions about visual and auditory details in the presence of irrelevant visual distraction varying in amount and predictability. More distraction led to fewer correct and more incorrect visual and auditory details being recalled, but the predictability of the distraction had no effect. These findings suggest that environmental distraction impacts upon memory quality rather than quantity, a pattern that may be hard for interviewers to detect. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Access to handouts of presentation slides during lecture: Consequences for learning

Teachers often lecture with presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint; however, little research has examined the effects of this new technology on learning. One issue that arises is whether or not to give students copies of the lecture slides, and if so when. A survey documented that students prefer to receive lecture slides before class, whereas instructors were less pronounced in their preferences. Two experiments examined whether having handouts of the slides facilitated encoding of science lectures. Having access to handouts of the slides during lecture was associated with a number of benefits: less note‐taking (studies 1 and 2), less time needed to prepare for a final test (study 1), and better performance on the final test (study 2). Overall, receiving handouts before lecture helped efficient encoding of the lecture. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Effects of Cell Phone Use and Emotion‐regulation Style on College Students' Learning

Cell phones are becoming an inevitable part of the classroom, but extant research suggests that using cell phones in the classroom impairs academic performance. The present study examined the impact of different cell phone policies on learning and emotion‐regulation style. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: cell phone usage allowed, cell phone possession allowed but without usage, cell phones removed, and a no‐instruction control group. All participants watched a 20‐minute lecture and were sent text messages to mimic classroom distractions. Afterward, participants took a multiple‐choice test and filled out questionnaires assessing their level of obsessiveness, nomophobia, and mindfulness. Participants who had their cell phone taken away performed best on the test with no other differences. None of the emotional‐regulation measures moderated the results. These findings provide important insight as to how cell phone policies can optimize learning in the classroom.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of different learning environments on students’ motivation for learning and their achievement

Background. Research in higher education on the effects of student‐centred versus lecture‐based learning environments generally does not take into account the psychological need support provided in these learning environments. From a self‐determination theory perspective, need support is important to study because it has been associated with benefits such as autonomous motivation and achievement. Aim. The purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of different learning environments on students’ motivation for learning and achievement, while taking into account the perceived need support. Sample. First‐year student teachers (N= 1,098) studying a child development course completed questionnaires assessing motivation and perceived need support. In addition, a prior knowledge test and case‐based assessment were administered. Method. A quasi‐experimental pre‐test/post‐test design was set up consisting of four learning environments: (1) lectures, (2) case‐based learning (CBL), (3) alternation of lectures and CBL, and (4) gradual implementation with lectures making way for CBL. Results. Autonomous motivation and achievement were higher in the gradually implemented CBL environment, compared to the CBL environment. Concerning achievement, two additional effects were found; students in the lecture‐based learning environment scored higher than students in the CBL environment, and students in the gradually implemented CBL environment scored higher than students in the alternated learning environment. Additionally, perceived need support was positively related to autonomous motivation, and negatively to controlled motivation. Conclusions. The study shows the importance of gradually introducing students to CBL, in terms of their autonomous motivation and achievement. Moreover, the study emphasizes the importance of perceived need support for students’ motivation.     

Questioning as an instructional method: Does it affect learning from lectures?

What can be done to improve student engagement and learning in college lectures? One approach is to ask questions that students answer during the lecture. In two lab experiments, students received a 25‐slide PowerPoint lecture in educational psychology that included four inserted multiple‐choice questions (questioning group) or four corresponding statements (control group). Students in the questioning group used a personal response system (PRS), in which they responded to questions using a hand‐held remote control, saw a graph displaying the percentage of students voting for each answer, and heard the teacher provide an explanation for the correct answer. Students in the control group received the corresponding slide as a statement and heard the teacher provide an explanation. The questioning group outperformed the control group on a retention test in Experiment 1 (d = 1.23) and on a transfer test in Experiment 2 (d = 0.74), but not on other tests. The results are consistent with a generative theory of learning, and encourage the appropriate use of questioning as an instructional method. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Working Memory Capacity Offers Resistance to Mind‐Wandering and External Distraction in a Context‐Specific Manner

The present study examined the impact of mind‐wandering and distraction in silent and noisy studying environments and how individual differences in working memory capacity offered resistance to these two distinct forms of attention failure. Two groups of participants read a text in different environments and answered reading comprehension questions. While reading, thought probes asked participants to indicate the current focus of their attention. Results showed that the relationship between working memory capacity and reading comprehension was partially driven by resistance to mind‐wandering in the silent condition and by resistance to external distraction in the noise condition. The findings support the distinction between mind‐wandering and external distraction, two separate yet related types of attention failure that impact task performance. Further, executive abilities seem to offer resistance to these two types of attention failure differentially depending on the context. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Creative Product and Process in Computer‐Mediated Groups

The effects of information technology on the creative performance in small groups were examined. An experimental 3 × 2 design was used in order to assess the effects of Group Communication Support System (GCSS) and perceived usefulness on the creative product and the creative process. A chat, a video conference and a face‐to‐face group were compared. The consensual technique was used to obtain measurements of creativity. The results of the analysis of variance indicated that the face‐to‐face group evoked more creative results than the other two. The more real life‐like the conditions were the better fluency of ideas. The video conference group scored significantly lower on incubation in the creative process. No effects were found concerning the participants' perceived usefulness. Participants in the face‐to‐face group reported themselves to be more satisfied with both their product and process than the participants in the computer‐mediated groups. The study suggests that the measurement of both the creative product and the creative process can contribute to the research on how GCSS affects creative performance.     

Virtual-reality distraction and cold-pressor pain tolerance: does avatar point of view matter?

This study tested the effects of distraction using virtual-reality (VR) technology on acute pain tolerance in young adults. Forty-one undergraduate students, aged 18-23 years, used a VR head-mounted display helmet, steering wheel, and foot pedal to play an auto racing video game while undergoing exposure to very cold water (cold pressor set at 1 °C). Two different game views were tested that were hypothesized to affect the degree to which participants felt "present" in the virtual environment: a first-person view, in which the participant saw the virtual environment through the eyes of the game character being manipulated; and a third-person view, in which the participant viewed the game character from a distance. The length of time participants tolerated the cold-water exposure (pain tolerance) under each distraction condition was compared to a baseline (no distraction) trial. Subjects also rated the degree to which they felt "present" in the virtual environment after each distraction trial. Results demonstrated that participants had significantly higher pain tolerance during both VR-distraction conditions relative to baseline (no distraction) trials. Although participants reported a greater sense of presence during the first-person condition than the third-person condition, pain-tolerance scores associated with the two distraction conditions did not differ. The types of VR applications in which presence may be more or less important are discussed.     

Monitoring Online Training Behaviors: Awareness of Electronic Surveillance Hinders E‐Learners1

Web‐based training programs commonly capture data reflecting e‐learners' activities, yet little is known about the effects of this practice. Social facilitation theory suggests that it may adversely affect people by heightening distraction and arousal. This experiment examined the issue by asking volunteers to complete a Web‐based training program designed to teach online search skills. Half of participants were told their training activities would be tracked; the others received no information about monitoring. Results supported the hypothesized effects on satisfaction, performance, and mental workload (measured via heart rate variability). Explicit awareness of monitoring appeared to tax e‐learners mentally during training, thereby hindering performance on a later skills test. Additionally, e‐learners reported less satisfaction with the training when monitoring was made salient.     

Imagery-inducing distraction leads to cognitive tunnelling and deteriorated driving performance

The effects of imagery-induced distraction on hazard perception and eye movements were investigated in 2 simulated driving experiments. Experiment 1: sixty participants viewed and responded to 2 driving films containing hazards. Group 1 completed the task without distraction; group 2 completed a concurrent imagery inducing telephone task; group 3 completed a non imagery inducing telephone task. Experiment 2: eye-tracking data were collected from forty-six participants while they reacted to hazards presented in 16 films of driving scenes. 8 films contained hazards presented in either central or peripheral vision and 8 contained no hazards. Half of the participants performed a concurrent imagery-inducing task. Compared to undistracted participants, dual-taskers were slower to respond to hazards; detected fewer hazards; committed more “looked but failed to see” errors; and demonstrated “visual tunnelling”. Telephone conversations may interfere with driving performance because the two tasks compete for similar processing resources, due to the imagery-evoking aspects of phone use.     

Influence of Irrelevant Speech on Standardized Test Performance

The aim of this study was to estimate the impact of distraction on standardized test performance. The distraction investigated here was from fellow examinees who were taking a speaking test. Study participants were volunteers (N = 171) who had previously taken the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) General Test, or the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). They were invited to retake a different form of the same test under either distracting conditions or standard, distraction-free conditions. Test takers expressed strong negative perceptions about the distraction caused by fellow test takers. The impact on actual test performance, however, was slight in the GMAT sample and negligible in both the GRE and TOEFL samples. Moreover, the influence of distraction was no greater than that associated with other common, undesirable influences.