Testing the buffering hypothesis: Perceptions of coach support and pre-competitive anxiety among male and female high school athletes

Research suggests that social support moderates or “buffers” the impact of stress on the individual and thus indirectly affects emotional well-being (Cohen and Wills, 1985). The present study sought to extend the “buffering hypothesis” to competitive sport by examining the influence of perceived coach support on competitive state anxiety among young athletes (N = 270). Results from confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) substantiated the validity of the sport-modified Social Provisions Scale (Russell and Cutrona, 1984; Ryska and Yin, 1994). Structural equation modeling analyses revealed a significant support-anxiety effect in the high trait-anxious model only (r =-.27, p .05). The present results suggest that perceived coach support represents an important mediating factor in the sport stress process among highly anxious athletes.     

Perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure in adolescent and adult sport

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether adolescent and adult athletes’ perceptions of interpersonal perfectionistic performance pressures from parents and coaches differ as a function of athlete age.DesignA cross-sectional repeated-measures design was employed.MethodA total of 1544 youth sport athletes (M age = 15.44 years; SD = 2.12) and 1706 adult sport athletes (M age = 20.80 years; SD = 2.09) provided self-report levels of perceived parental pressure (PPP) and perceived coach pressure (PCP) in sport.ResultsStatistically significant interaction effects (ps < .001) were obtained from two repeated-measures analyses of variance. Interaction effects indicated that PPP tended to be lower in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes, whereas PCP tended to be higher in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes. Significant main effects (ps < .001) also revealed that, regardless of age and whether athletes competed in youth sport or adult sport, athletes had a tendency to perceive more pressure from coaches than parents.ConclusionResults highlight the need to differentiate between parents and coaches as potential sources of interpersonal perfectionistic pressures in sport. Results also demonstrate that athletes’ perceptions of parent and coach pressure surrounding performance expectations and standards in sport can differ as a function of athlete age. Future research that examines perfectionism in sport from a developmental perspective is recommended.     

Youth athletes’ perception of autonomy support from the coach, peer motivational climate and intrinsic motivation in sport setting: One-year effects

Objectives

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and achievement goal theory (AGT; Nicholls, 1989), the present study examined the temporal stability and reciprocal relationships among three key variables related to motivation: perceived autonomy support from the coach, task-involving peer motivational climates, and athletes’ intrinsic motivation.

Design

A prospective longitudinal design with data collected on two occasions one year apart over the course of a youth training season.

Method

Young athletes (N = 362, age range 11-16 years) completed measures of the Sport Climate Questionnaire and the Peer Motivational Climate in Youth Sport Questionnaire. One-year later participants completed these questionnaires again along with the Sport Motivation Scale.

Results

Structural equation modeling indicated that perceived autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer motivational climates exhibited comparatively high stability over a one-year period. In cross-lagged analyses, perceived autonomy support from the coach positively predicted task-involving peer climate one-year later but not vice versa. In addition, both social factors demonstrated a significant direct effect on athletes intrinsic motivation measured concurrently in sport contexts. Further, an alternative structural model supported a longitudinal direct effect of autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer climate measured on the first occasion on subsequent intrinsic motivation.

Conclusion

Results demonstrated the value of perceived autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer motivational climate in predicting athletes’ intrinsic motivation over a training year. Findings also suggest that perceived autonomy support from the coach can facilitate later task-involving peer motivational climate.     

Relationships among Coach Leadership,Peer Leadership,and Adolescent Athletes’ Psychosocial and Team Outcomes: A Test of Transformational Leadership Theory

Transformational leadership theory provided a framework to examine the relationships of coach and peer leadership with individual and team outcomes among team sport athletes. Adolescent female soccer players (N = 412) completed measures assessing coach and teammate transformational leadership behaviors, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, team cohesion, and collective efficacy. Structural equation modeling revealed that coach leadership was more influential than peer leadership for predicting individual outcomes and collective efficacy, peer leadership was more strongly related to social cohesion than coach leadership, and both peer and coach leadership were equally important for task cohesion. Results are discussed relative to the viability of using transformational leadership theory to understand coach and athlete leadership in the sport domain.     

Perceptions of the Concept of Mutation among Family Members of Patients Receiving Outpatient Genetic Services and University Students

Our objectives were to investigate: (1) relationships between perceptions of various terms regarding mutation and the depth of knowledge regarding mutation among family members of patients receiving genetic outpatient services, and (2) differences in perceptions of the term “gene mutation” for family members versus university students. Fifty-eight family members and 178 university students responded to two questionnaires: Impressions regarding the term, and Knowledge about the concept of mutation. Factor analyses were conducted to determine the factor structure of ratings of the terms, and two-way analyses of variance [(1)Term, (2)Group × Knowledge] were conducted to examine differences in perceptions of the terms as measured by scores for each extracted factor. Family members had a significantly more negative perception of the term “gene mutation” than “gene change” and a less negative perception of the term “gene mutation” than “gene lesion”; they had significantly more negative perceptions of the term “gene mutation” than did university students.     

Autonomy support,basic need satisfaction and the optimal functioning of adult male and female sport participants: A test of basic needs theory

Grounded in Basic Needs Theory (BNT; Ryan and Deci, American Psychologist, 55, 68–78, 2000a), the present study aimed to: (a) test a theoretically-based model of coach autonomy support, motivational processes and well-/ill-being among a sample of adult sport participants, (b) discern which basic psychological need(s) mediate the link between autonomy support and well-/ill-being, and (c) explore gender invariance in the hypothesized model. Five hundred and thirty nine participants (Male = 271; Female = 268; M _age = 22.75) completed a multi-section questionnaire tapping the targeted variables. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that coach autonomy support predicted participants’ basic need satisfaction for autonomy, competence and relatedness. In turn, basic need satisfaction predicted greater subjective vitality when engaged in sport. Participants with low levels of autonomy were more susceptible to feeling emotionally and physically exhausted from their sport investment. Autonomy and competence partially mediated the path from autonomy support to subjective vitality. Lastly, the results supported partial invariance of the model with respect to gender.     

The Role of Implicit Beliefs and Achievement Goals as Protective Factors in Youth Sport

This study explored whether implicit beliefs and 2 × 2 achievement goals were related to enjoyment in youth sport over 1 year and whether perceived changes in the coach–athlete relationship moderated these relationships. Indirect and conditional indirect effect analyses were conducted in a sample of 247 regular sport participants (M_age = 13.03 years). After adjusting for enjoyment at Time 1, incremental beliefs were indirectly related to Time 2 enjoyment via mastery-approach goals. However, this effect was evident only when the coach–athlete relationship was perceived to have deteriorated. Results highlight the protective value of adaptive implicit beliefs and achievement goals in youth sport.     

The use of the occupational stress indicator (OSI) in factory workers in China

The purpose of the study was to investigate occupational stress among Chinese factory workers (N=342), from three cities of South East China, using the shortened version of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI)-2. The results showed that the reliabilities and predictive validity of the OSI-2 subscales and other subscales used for the study were reasonably high. Quite a high percentage of workers perceived high work pressure. The main sources of stress were intrinsic to the job; and the coping strategies that were most frequently used to tackle stress were “control” methods. In addition, “satisfaction on environmental condition” seemed to be a common predictor for job satisfaction, and mental and physical well-being. The logical relationships between job satisfaction, mental well-being and physical well-being in Chinese workers have provided support to the findings obtained in Western countries.     

Motivational Profiles of Junior College Athletes: A Cluster Analysis

The purpose of this study was to identify the motivational profiles underlying sport participation among young Singaporean college athletes, as well as to examine the relationships between motivational profiles and a range of cognitive, affective, and behavioral indices. Junior college athletes (N = 303, mean age = 17.64, SD = .60) completed a questionnaire assessing achievement goal orientations, self-determination, sport ability beliefs, perceived competence, and other motivational indices. Four meaningful clusters were identified and validated with differences in perceived motivational climates and other variables. The use of cluster analysis in the present study proved fruitful in identifying subgroups of athletes with differentiated motivational patterns. Consequently, the information obtained could assist coaches in designing intervention programs that target their athletes’ motivational needs.     

Applied orienting response research: Some examples

The development of orienting response (OR) theory has not been accompanied by many applications of the concept—most research still appears to be lab-based and “pure,” rather than “applied.” We present some examples from our own work in which the OR perspective has been applied in a wider context. These cover the exploration of processing deficits in autistic children, aspects of the “repression” of anxiety in elite athletes, and the locus of alcohol effects. Such applications of the OR concept in real-life situations seem a logical and, indeed,necessary step in the evolution of this area of psychophysiology. With a Comment by E. N. Sokolov     

Exploring adversity and the potential for growth among elite female athletes

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to (a) explore experiences of adversity and (b) to examine perceptions of growth following adversity among elite female athletes.MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with five elite female athletes (ages 18–23 years) who competed internationally in track and field, swimming, long-distance running, and basketball. Interviews were analyzed using an interpretative phenomenological approach (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009).ResultsIncidents of performance slumps, coach conflicts, bullying, eating disorders, sexual abuse, and injuries were reported. The shared ‘essential’ features of participants’ experiences of adversity were isolation/withdrawal, emotional disruption, questioning identity as an athlete, and understanding experiences within a context of perceived expectations. It appeared that as participants sought and found meaning in their experiences, they identified opportunities for growth associated with social support and also as they realized the role of sport in their lives. Aspects of growth include realizing strength, gaining perspective of their problems, and gaining a desire to help others. Athletes’ experiences with adversity were seen as part of an ongoing journey through elite sport.ConclusionsAthletes’ experiences of adversity may have initiated a process of questioning their identities and searching for meaning in their experiences. Findings highlighted the complexity associated with social support and athletes’ growth following adversity. Growth following adversity appears to be a valuable area of research among elite athletes.     

The Milwaukee Inventory for Subtypes of Trichotillomania-Adult Version (MIST-A): Development of an Instrument for the Assessment of “Focused” and “Automatic” Hair Pulling

This article describes the development of the Milwaukee Inventory for Subtypes of Trichotillomania-Adult Version (MIST-A), which was designed to assess “automatic” and “focused” pulling subtypes of trichotillomania (TTM). Participants reporting symptoms of TTM (n = 1,697) completed an internet survey; participants were later randomly assigned to either Exploratory (n = 848) or Confirmatory (n = 849) Analyses. Exploratory Analyses examined the development and psychometric properties of the MIST-A. Results of an exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factor solution. Factor 1 (“focused” pulling scale) and 2 (“automatic” pulling scale) consisted of ten and five items respectively, with both scales demonstrating adequate internal consistency and good construct and discriminant validity. Subsequent confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated support for the scale’s underlying factor structure. The MIST-A provides researchers with a reliable and valid assessment of “automatic” and “focused” pulling, although replication using a clinically ascertained sample is necessary.

Differential incidence of procrastination between blue and white-collar workers

The present study compared chronic procrastination tendencies claimed by “whitecollar” working adults (n = 141) with rates reported by Harriott and Ferrari ( 1996) of “blue-collar” working adults (n - 211). Participants completed reliable and valid measures of everyday procrastination tendencies (decisional, arousal, and avoidant), and socio-demographic items at one of several public forums. Results showed no significant difference between classes of working adults on age, gender, marital status, or the number of children, although “white-collar” workers claimed higher levels of education than “blue-collar” workers. “White-collar” workers also reported significantly higher scores on all three forms of chronic procrastination than “blue-collar” workers. It seems that professional employees report procrastination more frequently than unskilled workers. Further research is needed to explore the causes and consequences associated with differences in chronic procrastination by occupational group.     

Associations between the perceived quality of the coach–athlete relationship and athlete burnout: An examination of the mediating role of achievement goals

ObjectivesThe aim of the current study was to examine (1) associations between the quality of the coach–athlete relationship as perceived by athletes and athlete burnout and, (2) the role of achievement goals in mediating the association between the coach–athlete relationship and burnout.DesignCross-sectional.Method359 athletes completed measures of the perceived quality of the coach–athlete relationship (the 3Cs model), achievement goals (the 2 × 2 model) and burnout (the athlete burnout model).ResultsStructural equation modeling revealed negative relationships between the perceived quality of the coach–athlete relationship and the three dimensions of athlete burnout (df = 118, χ² = 215.37, RMSEA = .05 [.04; .06], TLI = .97, CFI = .97). Moreover, results suggested that mastery-approach goals partially mediated the relationship between the coach–athlete relationship and two dimensions of athlete burnout: sport devaluation (i.e., indirect and direct effects: p < .001) and reduced accomplishment (i.e., indirect and direct effects: p < .01).ConclusionThe current study confirms and broadens previous knowledge on the socio-cognitive correlates of athlete burnout by demonstrating that the level of athlete burnout is associated with the perceived quality of the relationship with the coach. Results also highlight that achievement goals partially mediate these relationships.     

Psychometric Validation of the Temptation and Restraint Inventory in Two Samples of College Drinkers1

Drinking restraint, commonly measured by the Temptation and Restraint Inventory (TRI; Collins & Lapp, 1992), refers to a cycle of temptation to drink alcohol and attempts to control alcohol use that results in excessive consumption. Recent research has examined college drinkers using the TRI, however, it has been validated only in adult samples. This study validated the TRI in two samples of college drinkers, designated as “hazardous” (n = 480) and “harmful” (n = 231) drinkers. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the previously reported higher order two-factor structure was identified in both samples. In addition, multiple regression analyses using derived component scores demonstrated that TRI performance was associated with degree of alcohol dependence in both samples. These data support the use of the TRI in college samples.These data were previously presented in November 2002 at the 36th annual meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Reno, NV     

Differential incidence of procrastination between blue and white-collar workers

The present study compared chronic procrastination tendencies claimed by “whitecollar” working adults (n = 141) with rates reported by Harriott and Ferrari ( 1996) of “blue-collar” working adults (n - 211). Participants completed reliable and valid measures of everyday procrastination tendencies (decisional, arousal, and avoidant), and socio-demographic items at one of several public forums. Results showed no significant difference between classes of working adults on age, gender, marital status, or the number of children, although “white-collar” workers claimed higher levels of education than “blue-collar” workers. “White-collar” workers also reported significantly higher scores on all three forms of chronic procrastination than “blue-collar” workers. It seems that professional employees report procrastination more frequently than unskilled workers. Further research is needed to explore the causes and consequences associated with differences in chronic procrastination by occupational group.     

Effect of parent responsiveness on young athletes’ self-perceptions and thriving: An exploratory study in a Belgian French-Community

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to examine the influence of parental responsive support (observed) and perceived parental responsive support on athletes’ self-perceptions and thriving.MethodsForty-one French-speaking Belgian individual sport athletes aged 12–15 years (M = 13.13, SD = 0.90) and one of their parent’s spent 10 min discussing three important athletes’ sport-related goals for the next season. The discussion was video-taped and coded to identify parents’ responsive support behaviors. After the discussion, athletes responded to a series of questionnaires measuring perceived parental responsiveness, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and thriving indicators (i.e., positive affect, vitality, life satisfaction, and health quality).ResultsThe results show that observed and perceived parental responsive support contributed to athletes’ proximal perceptions of self-efficacy. Both parental observed responsive support and athletes’ perceived parental responsiveness, mediated by athletes’ self-efficacy, were positively related to athlete’s self-esteem. Further, athletes’ perceived parental responsiveness was positively related with thriving while mediated in series by self-efficacy and self-esteem.ConclusionOverall, it appears that parents’ responsive support (observed) and athletes’ perception of responsive support are associated with positive self-perceptions and optimal wellbeing in young athletes. This study demonstrates that parents can provide responsive support to their children in the sport context. These results add further weight to suggestions that sport organizations should actively include, rather than exclude, parents in their processes.     

Exploring the Contribution of the Caring Climate to the Youth Sport Experience

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between young athletes’ perceptions of the caring climate on their soccer teams to their enjoyment, attitudes and, behaviors toward their coach and teammates, and commitment to the sport. Athletes (N = 184) in a community soccer league volunteered to complete a survey. Results revealed that athletes who perceived a caring climate on their teams were significantly more likely to report higher enjoyment, more positive attitudes towards their coaches/teammates, greater commitment to soccer, and engage in more caring behaviors towards their coaches/teammates. Results suggest that a caring climate may benefit young athletes.     

When the final whistle blows: Social identity pathways support mental health and life satisfaction after retirement from competitive sport

For many athletes, retirement from higher levels of competitive sport poses significant challenges. Research has shown that athletic identity is a key predictor of adjustment trajectories, but the mechanisms through which this affects outcomes are less clear. Added to this, there has been limited research on the role that wider social identities, and the resources they enable, play in adjustment. Addressing both these issues, we examined theoretically derived social identity pathways to retirement adjustment in athletes who had played sport at higher competitive levels and two potential mechanisms, or psychological resources, through which adjustment might be enabled. This was examined in two samples: retired athletes from countries in Western (n = 215) and Eastern (n = 183) regions. Loss of athletic identity, social group memberships (multiple, maintained and new), psychological resources (perceived meaning in life and control), and adjustment (life satisfaction, depression, and perceived physical health) were assessed. In both samples, the loss of athletic identity undermined adjustment by reducing meaning in life and perceived control. Path analysis showed that both maintained and gained social group memberships counteracted the negative effects of athletic identity loss on adjustment. Evidence that these pathways enabled access to psychological resources was found primarily in Chinese athletes, with maintained groups influencing personal control and new groups influencing meaning in life. These findings highlight the importance of social identity processes to retirement from higher levels of competitive sport and the mechanisms through which they can either support or undermine adjustment.     

Exploring the perceived effectiveness of a life skills development program for high-performance athletes

The purpose of this study was to explore attitudes towards, experiences of, and perceived effectiveness of a life-skills programme for high-performance young athletes from multiple perspectives, including the athletes, coaches, parents, programme facilitators, and sport administrators. Six focus groups were conducted with 54 high-performance athletes from six sports: squash, softball, baseball, netball, triathlon, and surfing. Three focus groups were conducted with parents (n = 8) of athletes and a further eight semi-structured interviews were conducted with coaches (n = 4) and lead facilitators (n = 4) of the life-skills programme. Four semi-structured interviews were also held with representatives from State Sporting Associations (SSAs) from the sports involved. Thematic content analysis revealed seven main themes: achieving balance and managing stress, time management, goal setting, confidence and control, information overload and repetition, credible role-models, coach reinforcement and follow-up. The programme was perceived to be moderately successful in developing adaptive behaviours and motives including better engagement in training and in adopting time management and planning skills in contexts outside of sport such as homework and academic study. The programme also fostered the development of skills, attitudes, and motives important for sport success such as goal setting and having confidence to succeed. To improve the effectiveness of such programmes, more emphasis should be placed on the practice of, and engagement with, applied techniques to develop skills with less emphasis on information giving and theory. Facilitators of programmes should also be more pro-active in involving parents and coaches as a way to improve continuity and provide post-program reinforcement and support.