The Use and Evolution of Stories as a Mode of Problem Representation: Soviet and French Military Officers Face the Loss of Empire

Experimental work on modes of problem representation (Sylvan, Diascro, & Haddad, 1996) has found that the story model of Pennington and Hastie (1986, 1988) is a helpful construct in understanding how people reach decisions when dealing with questions of foreign policy. Here, a modified version of the story model is applied to statements by military officers in the Soviet Union and in France, representing the situations they face before and after the loss of Eastern Europe and Indochina, respectively (Charlick-Paley, 1997). Both baseline stories and those after the losses of empire are examined to test the hypothesis that when a military experiences the loss of its state's empire, officers will formulate a new story that justifies the change in its status, and that this new story will motivate new patterns of civil-military relations in the post-imperial era. The hypothesis finds general support, and stories are found to be a useful vehicle in understanding differences between groups of military officers. An analysis of how officers' stories change over time yields intriguing results as to how mutable stories are and which elements of a story are most likely to change first. In particular, expansion of the level of a goal is found to be a representational response to the political stimulus of loss of empire.     

线索提示对物理问题表征的影响

考察了复杂物理问题解决中图形线索提示和参数线索提示的作用,结果表明,在难度较大的物理问题中,单一的图形线索提示未给学生带来太大的帮助,而参数线索提示有助于学生搜索到有效算子.讨论了专家在物理问题解决过程中的特点,认为专家的优势之一在于比新手更善于发现关键的线索,能够根据关键线索找到合适的原理来完整地表征问题.     

小学生应用题表征的类型和特点

以124名小学六年级学生为被试。采用应用题解决问卷考查了我国小学生应用题表征的类型和特点。结果表明小学生应用题的表征方式有复述内容、图式表征、图片表征、直译表征、语义结构分析等;成功解题者和不成功解题者对各种表征方式的使用次数上没有显着差异;成功解题者和不成功解题者在各种表征方式下的解题成绩有显着差异,成功解题者在图式表征、直译表征和语义结构分析表征下的成绩显着优于不成功解题者。     

智商对物理问题解决表征体系动态特征的影响

基于对物理问题解决表征体系特征的研究,本文用口语报告法,对不同智商水平的被试在解决物理问题过程中表征体系的动态差异进行了实证性研究。结果证明,智商水平对物理问题解决表征体系动态特征的影响显著。     

论数学问题解决中情境模型与问题模型的关系

情境模型与问题模型是数学问题解决研究中的两个重要概念,前者是对问题所述情境的日常化的定性表征,后者是基于图式知识对问题关键变量的数量关系表征。本文介绍了两种模型的发展历史以及目前存在的争议,并提出了未来研究需要解决的问题。     

幼儿在地图任务中自我位置与自我朝向表征能力的发展

使用地图定向任务, 探讨了不同任务模式下, 4~6岁幼儿自我位置与自我朝向表征能力的发展特点。结果发现, 位置表征能力的获得先于朝向表征能力, 幼儿从4岁起即开始使用地图表征自我位置, 但到5岁才表现出对自我朝向的表征能力。此外, 对于年龄较小的儿童, 相比于空间–地图的任务模式, 地图–空间的任务模式更有利于完成任务。上述结果第一次从个体发展层面证明了位置与朝向表征的分离现象, 说明位置与朝向的表征能力在发展过程中具有一定的顺序性。     

The Effects of Charismatic Leadership on Followers' Self-Concept Accessibility

Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993) suggested that the effects of charismatic leadership on followers' motivation are mediated by the increased salience of collective identities in followers' self-concepts. This study empirically examines the effects of leadership messages on followers' self-concept accessibilities. Charismatic and integrative (combined charismatic and individualized consideration) leadership increased the accessibility of followers' collective self-concepts. Individualized consideration increased the accessibility of followers' private self-concepts. These results support the propositions of the self-concept-based theory of charismatic leadership. Charismatic and integrative leadership messages from a leader resulted in higher follower collective self-concept accessibilities than did routinized messages. This finding underscores the importance of a charismatic leader, even when charismatic messages have become routinized.     

The Role of Self-Awareness and Self-Monitoring in Charismatic Relationships

In this paper, a hypothesis from a theory of charismatic relationships is examined that incorporates follower's level of self-monitoring and state of self-awareness. It is argued that changes in the state of self-awareness affect the characteristics of the short-term charismatic relationship between leader and follower, but only for high self-monitoring followers. Providing support for the hypothesis was a repeated-measures study. Participants ( N = 78) viewed video vignettes of charismatic leaders presenting different messages, in either a high or low self-awareness condition. When high in self-awareness, participants with a high self-monitoring orientation were more likely than when in a state of low self-awareness to internalize only those messages congruent with their values and beliefs.     

The Development of Representations of Pretend Object Substitutions

Many theories of how pretense is mentally represented have been posited, but none have been effectually empirically tested to date. This research is the first to explore how children and adults mentally process simple pretend actions, specifically pretend object substitutions, and whether this representation changes with age. Preschoolers, older children, and undergraduates heard or read about a variety of pretend object substitutions, and their reaction time to name an image related to the object's real identity, pretend identity, or an unrelated image was measured. To test what is unique to pretense, these reaction times were compared to those from participants who responded to the same images after reading about nonpretend versions of the same actions. Results suggest that preschoolers inhibit reality when representing a pretend action, older children activate an object's real and pretend identities equally, and adults activate the object's real identity more than the pretend one. Implications for current theories of pretense representation are discussed.     

比较应用题的问题表征策略研究

采用2×2×4三因素混合实验设计,对不同年级学生解比较应用题过程中的各种指标进行分析,结果表明:学生解比较应用题时的问题表征策略存在显著的年级差异;数学成绩优生、差生存在不同的问题表征策略;题目呈现方式对学生的问题表征策略有显著影响。     

Introduction: The Charismatic Movement and Contemporary Social Change

The ‘Emerging Church’ is an American-born movement that dates to the late 1990s. It is fundamentally a movement of cultural critique in which the primary interlocutor is the dominant tradition in the United States, conservative Evangelicalism. In this article I address the phenomenon of Emerging Christianity based on historical, literary, and ethnographic analyses of Emerging Church advocates and critics. In particular, I argue that four points of dialogue characterize the status of Emerging in the United States: ‘post-foundational’ theology, ‘ancient-future’ worship, ‘missional’ evangelism, and a general posture of ‘deconversion.’ Ultimately, I present the story of the Emerging Church for its significance to two broad theoretical questions. First, how do new forms of religious identity come into being? And, second, for those working in the ‘anthropology of Christianity’: what happens when Christianities interact? In response to these questions, I stress the Janus-faced quality of Emerging Christianity and its reliance on the categories, narratives, and vocabulary of conservative Evangelicalism in constructing its thoroughgoing cultural critique.     

不同亚型数学学习困难儿童应用题问题表征过程的研究

采用自编数学应用题解决能力测验题对小学四年级单纯型数困儿童、混合型数困儿童和普通儿童问题理解阶段、问题整合阶段的差异,以及问题表征能力与数学问题解决之间的关系进行探究。结果表明：（1）单纯型与混合型数困儿童有效识别信息的能力弱,难于利用相关信息和排除干扰信息。（2）单纯型数困儿童比混合型数困儿童更擅于运用图式表征策略。（3）图式表征策略能促进数困儿童应用题的解决。     

顿悟与问题表征的转变

阐述了解决残缺棋盘问题的顿悟过程。该实验的结果证明,顿悟过程中需要发现一种正确的问题表征,即对等性问题空间,为了发现这一表征,被试必须使问题表征从“铺试问题空间”转变为“元水平的问题空间”．被试在这两个空间中进行搜索时,必须有很强的限制,使搜索成为有高度选择性的搜索,才能最终在元水平问题空间中发现正确的表征。本研究还发现,被试的搜索并不总是知觉驱动的,有时是概念驱动的,而且后者的迁移性更高。     

Worldviews in Foreign Policy: Realism, Liberalism, and External Conflict

International relations studies have been unable to determine whether realist or liberal theories better fit state behavior in various situations, possibly because these studies have attributed motive and action to the states rather than to the decision-makers within them. This article develops a new, more direct approach to resolving this problem. Hypotheses were tested regarding conditions under which decision-makers are likely to articulate a problem representation consistent with liberal or realist elements of a worldview. This was done by content analysis of statements about 36 foreign conflicts by the governments of three "bystander" nations—the United States, Canada, and India—over a 16-year period. The findings indicate that systemic and situational factors are far more important than domestic factors. States tend to represent wars in congruence with liberalism primarily when their security is already assured by another power or when the conflict does not involve allies, rivals, or fellow democracies. Thus, most of the expectations of realism are supported at the psychological level.     

不同年级中学生对数学问题表征的差异性研究

问题表征是问题解决的重要环节。本研究选用可在不同数学结构中进行表征的数学开放性问题,对不同年级的中学生进行测试,并分析被试问题表征的环节和问题解决的结果,发现(1)中学生对数学问题的表征由一维向二维、三维情形逐步发展;(2)问题表征受个体数学知识背景和CPFS结构的影响;(3)问题表征受个体思维水平的影响;(4)问题表征是一个循环深入的过程,其中伴有顿悟的因素。     

心理表征对正投影问题解决及轴测投影图再认水平的影响

借鉴内隐记忆的研究范式,采用平面、分离的正投影问题解决及其相应轴测投影图的再认任务,探讨问题表征的结构特征性对空间问题解决和再认水平的影响。实验结果表明,一般在正投影问题获得正确解决时,对其相应的、先前从未见到过的轴测投影图往往也可获得正确再认,而且基于正投影问题获得正确解决条件下的再认水平（PCC）显著地高于那些问题未得获得解决下的再认水平（PCI）。在结合被试口语记录的基础上,研究结果证明：基于正投影图上的问题解决过程是受到一个具有三维结构特性而非正投影图中二维特性心理表征的调节;并且,正是这一具有三维结构特性心理表征的建构,使得对具有相同结构特性的轴测投影图获得了更为有效的再认。     

儿童数字估计的表征模式与发展

探讨中国儿童数字估计的表征模式与发展趋势。包括两个实验,均采用数字线估计任务,实验一以92名幼儿园、一年级及二年级儿童为被试,考察其在0~100范围的数字估计,结果显示,幼儿园儿童在数字估计更多地采用对数表征,而一二年级的儿童在数字估计中更多地采用线性表征;实验二以86名一、三、五年级儿童为被试,考察其在0~1000范围的数字估计,结果显示,一年级儿童有一半采用对数表征,另一半采用线性表征,而三五年级儿童大多采用线性表征。中国儿童的数字估计表现出与美国儿童相同的发展模式,都是由不精确的对数表征逐步向精确的线性表征发展;人的数表征有多种形式,即使在同一年龄阶段,也会因任务难度的不同而选择不同的表征模式。中国儿童精确数字估计能力的出现要早于美国儿童。     

The Zhuangzi on Coping with Society

Stories in the Zhuangzi detailing expert artisans and other extraordinary people are often read as celebrations of “skills” or “knacks.” In this paper, I will argue that they would be more accurately understood as “coping” stories. Taken as a celebration of one’s “skill” or “knack” they transform the Zhuangzi into an implicit advocate of conforming to, or even identifying with, one’s social roles. I will argue that the stories of artisans and extraordinarily skilled people are less about cultivating one’s talents so as to “find one’s calling,” better fulfill social expectations, or achieve oneness with Dao, than they are concerned with developing strategies for coping with natural and social contingencies. Read in this way, there is much to learn from the Zhuangzi when reflecting on contemporary social and political issues, especially those related to meritocratic hubris.