Drug Tolerance, Drug Addiction, and Drug Anticipation

ABSTRACT— Environmental cues associated with drugs often elicit withdrawal symptoms and relapse to drug use. Such cues also modulate drug tolerance. The contribution of drug-associated stimuli to withdrawal and tolerance is emphasized in a Pavlovian-conditioning analysis of drug administration. Conditional responses occur in the presence of cues that have been associated with the drug in the past, such as the setting in which the drug was taken. These conditional responses mediate the expression of tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. Recently, it has become apparent that internal predrug cues, as well as environmental cues, elicit pharmacological conditional responses that contribute to tolerance and withdrawal. Such internal cues include cognitive or proprioceptive cues incidental to self-administration, drug-onset cues that are experienced shortly after administration, and emotional cues. According to the conditioning analysis, addiction treatment should incorporate learning principles to extinguish the association between stimuli (environmental and internal) present at the time of drug administration and the effects of the addictive drug.     

Women,Work, and Life Transitions

Work is a positive force in helping women manage the issues and problems caused by separation and loss. The role of the employment counselor can be crucial during the process of transition.     

Perceptual Anticipation and Reaction Time

To determine the effect of perceptual anticipation upon reaction time, two different types of experiment were carried out. In the first a skilled response had occasionally to be altered at a given point after a variable warning period. In the second the subject had to react to two auditory signals separated by a short time interval which was systematically varied, the second signal being expected or unexpected.

It was found that lack of readiness to respond to a signal, as revealed by a lengthened reaction time, may be due either to the subject not having prepared himself, as he was not expecting the signal; or to the subject not being able to prepare himself in time. Preparation for reacting to the second of the two signals, when both are expected and have to be reacted to, never appears to take more than between 0·2 and 0·4 seconds, as judged by reaction time. On the majority of occasions it appears to be complete in 0·2 seconds. These times are shorter than those usually given, because the extra delay due to incorrect anticipation has been excluded. With intervals of 0·1 seconds or less, delay in the second reaction may be due to the mechanical difficulty of responding quickly enough, especially when the two reactions have to be made in opposite directions.

The finding that lack of readiness might be due to the subject not expecting the signal, and the further finding that preparation took longer when a skilled response had to be extended than when it had to be stopped, both suggest that so-called Psychological refractoriness is due to lack of fore period in which to prepare for the response, rather than to a “Psychological refractory phase” comparable to the refractory phase of nerves. If, by dividing his attention, the subject was able to prepare for his next response while making his previous one, so-called Psychological refractoriness could be completely absent.     

Gender‐Role Orientation,Creative Accomplishments and Cognitive Styles

The present study examined the association of gender‐role orientation to creative accomplishments and cognitive styles. One hundred and twenty‐seven college students completed the Artistic and Scientific Activities Survey (Guastello, 1991), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1974), and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974). Three different gender‐role orientations were examined: instrumentality (agenic, stereotypically masculine), expressiveness (communal, stereotypically feminine), and androgynous (high levels of instrumental and expressive characteristics). Results indicated that instrumentality was positively associated with creative accomplishments in the business venture domain and that androgynous, versus nonandrogynous, individuals were more creatively productive in the domains of literature, theater, and video‐photography. Instrumentality was also positively associated with the six hats cognitive style, which is a measure of cognitive flexibility, and the six hats style was marginally significantly associated with androgyny. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed and recommendations for future research are considered.     

A Comparison of Preschoolers' Memory,Knowledge, and Anticipation of Events

This study examined the development of the episodic and semantic memory systems, with an emphasis on the emergence of the two aspects of the former: episodic memory (the ability to re-experience a past event) and episodic future thinking (the ability to pre-experience a future event). Three-, 4-, and 5-year olds were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: past, semantic, or future. Children were asked questions about the same eight events, phrased in past, generalized present, or future tense. Half of these events were ones for which parents rated their children as having a high level of control (or input) over how the event unfolds, whereas the other half were rated as “low control.” Responses were scored with respect to their specificity and accuracy. Results revealed age differences in children's accuracy scores across all three conditions. Children's episodic future thinking and episodic memory, but not semantic memory, were less accurate for low-control events compared with high-control events. These results offer a new perspective on the development of the episodic and semantic memory systems and the methods used to assess them.     

The Emotional Timeline of Unemployment: Anticipation,Reaction, and Adaptation

Unemployment continues to be one of the major challenges in industrialized societies. Aside from its economic and societal repercussions, questions concerning the subjective experience of unemployment have recently attracted increasing attention. Although existing studies have documented the detrimental effects of unemployment for cognitive (life satisfaction) and affective well-being, studies directly comparing these two dimensions of subjective well-being and their temporal dynamics in anticipation of and response to unemployment are absent from the literature. Using longitudinal data of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) and applying fixed effects regressions, we investigate changes in cognitive and affective well-being prior to and after job loss. Extending previous studies, we use discrete emotion measures instead of affect balance indicators to assess affective well-being. Our results support existing findings that unemployment leads to decreases in life satisfaction and that the unemployed do not adapt towards previous levels of life satisfaction. We also find that individuals more often experience sadness and anxiety, and less often happiness when transitioning into unemployment. Importantly, changes in affective well-being are less enduring compared to the changes in life satisfaction.     

Anticipation and variation in visual content

This article is composed of three parts. In the first part of the article I take up a question raised by Susanna Siegel (Philosophical Review 115: 355–388, 2006a). Siegel has argued that subjects have the following anticipation: (PC) If S substantially changes her perspective on o, her visual phenomenology will change as a result of this change. She has left it an open question as to whether subjects anticipate a specific kind of change. I take up this question and answer it in the affirmative. By appealing to a widely held view of perceptual content, the view that we represent ‘factual’ properties in perception, I argue that (PC) can be refined as follows: (PC’) If S substantially changes her perspective on o, her visual phenomenology will present different views of o’s factual properties. In the second part of the article I argue that (PC’) implies that there are cases in which normal perceivers have different perceptual content under identical viewing conditions. The differences in perceptual content are due to differences in the determinacy of visual anticipation. I draw the conclusion that perceptual content is rich in the sense that it includes a unique contribution from individual perceivers. In the final part of the article, I discuss some open issues regarding the way in which (PC’) relates to the personal/sub-personal distinction, empirical models, and the distinction between perception and cognition.     

Absolute Positing,the Frege Anticipation Thesis,and Kant's Definitions of Judgment

Abstract: Kant follows a substantial tradition by defining judgment so that it must involve a relation of concepts, which raises the question of why he thinks that single‐term existential judgments should still qualify as judgments. There is a ready explanation if Kant is somehow anticipating a Fregean second‐order account of existence, an interpretation that is already widely held for separate reasons. This paper examines Kant's early (1763) critique of Wolffian accounts of existence, finding that it provides the key idea in his mature model of existential judgment, which is in fact sharply opposed to the Fregean strategy. By relating this to Kant's theory of judgment in general—in particular, to his claim for an isomorphism between the assertoric function of judgment and the category of existence—a preliminary case is made that absolute positing, far from being a marginal special case, accomplishes the primary function of judgment. This argument shows the importance of distinguishing between contexts in which Kant is treating judgment as a vehicle for inference (e.g. pure general logic) and contexts in which he is treating it, more robustly, as the cognition of an object.     

Ordinal Position Learning and Remote Anticipation

Rats were runway trained on each of two 3-trial series of reward outcomes. The series are labeled XNY and ZNN, for which X represents a trial that was rewarded with Noyes pellets and N represents a trial that ended with no reward. Units of distinctively flavored breakfast cereals served as reward on trials labeled Y and Z. One group (Floor) had each series occur with a correlated runway floor, either smooth and black or rough and white. For a second group (Memory), the floor cue was uncorrelated with series. Animals in both groups learned to approach the goal rapidly on the 1st trials of the 2 series and slowly on the 2nd trials, but only Group Floor learned to differentiate the 3rd trials of the series. These results recommend a view of serial learning that emphasizes the role played by information about the ordinal position of series items.     

The Muddle of Anticipation

In J. J. Gibson's classic paper “The Problem of Temporal Order in Stimulation and Perception” (1966a Gibson, J. J. (1966a). The problem of temporal order in stimulation and perception. Journal of Psychology, 62, 141–149.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), he referred to the difficulties encountered when attempting a sharp distinction between memory and perception as “the muddle of memory.” Resolution of the muddle by J. J. Gibson proceeded by blurring the distinction itself. We develop the conjugate “muddle of anticipation” similarly by blurring the sharp distinction traditionally drawn between anticipation and perception. The subsequent redefinition of the problem is grounded in strong anticipation equated with anticipating synchronization—that which arises from a system itself via lawful regularities embedded in the system's ordinary mode of function. We identify the fit of strong anticipation's properties to J. J. Gibson's ecological approach and in so doing introduce the possibility of a potentially deep connection between them, namely, that the coordination of perception with surroundings (direct perception) is a special case of strong anticipation.     

Approach/Positive Anticipation,Frustration/Anger,and Overt Aggression in Childhood

ABSTRACT We examined mothers' ratings of children's affective and behavioral aspects of approach tendencies and links with overt aggressive behavior problems while considering the genetic etiology of these processes. Approach/positive anticipation (AP), frustration/anger (FA), and overt aggression in 4–9‐year‐olds were assessed using mothers' reports in a diverse national sample (n=992) and a sample of same‐sex twins (n=195 pairs). AP and FA were positively correlated with each other and with overt aggression (r from .2 to .5), and these associations were very similar for boys and girls. AP and FA provided overlapping as well as independent statistical prediction of aggression. AP statistical prediction of aggression was substantially mediated by FA, an effect that was accounted for by underlying genetic and nonshared environmental influences.     

Anticipation skill and susceptibility to deceptive movement

The ability to detect deceptive movement was examined in skilled and novice rugby players. Participants (14 per group) attempted to predict direction change from video of expert and recreational rugby players changing direction with and without deceptive movement. Confidence associated with judgments was recorded on each trial to seek evidence regarding use of inferential (heuristic-based) and direct-perceptual (invariant-based) judgments. Novices were found to be susceptible to deceptive movement whereas skilled participants were not; however, both skilled and novice participants were more confident on trials containing deceptive movement. The data suggest that the skill-level difference in sensitivity to advance visual information extends to deceptive information. The implications of this finding, and the importance of considering the underlying process of anticipation skill, are discussed.     

视觉预期的类型及神经机制

视觉预期是一种运用视觉信息的部分资源和先行资源对即将发生的事件进行预测的能力。为了人们更加清楚地认识视觉预期的内在加工过程,同时也有助于国内外研究者更为科学深入地探讨这种自上而下的加工,本文主要从婴幼儿和成人运动员两方面来阐述视觉预期的相关研究。首先从婴幼儿对物体相关属性和行为目标的视觉预期两方面探讨了视觉预期的类型,然后论述了成人视觉预期的神经机制。最后,指出今后的研究应加强视觉预期相关技术在临床诊断中的应用,注重环境在视觉预期中的作用,从神经网络角度研究视觉预期的神经基础。     

Anticipation skill in a real-world task: measurement,training, and transfer in tennis

Anticipation skill in tennis was examined using realistic film simulations, movement-based response measures, and a portable eye movement recording system. Skilled players were faster than their less skilled counterparts in anticipating the direction of opponents' tennis strokes, with this superior performance being based, at least in part, on more effective visual search behaviors. The processes mediating superior performance were then modeled in groups of recreational tennis players using video simulation, instruction, and feedback. Players who received perceptual training improved their performance on laboratory- and field-based tests of anticipation when compared with matched placebo and control groups that did not receive any instruction regarding expert performance strategies. The approach used may have practical utility in a variety of performance contexts.