Assisted reproduction versus spontaneous conception: a comparison of the developmental outcomes in twins

The use of assisted reproductive technology is increasing rapidly. Research, although sparse, has resulted in inconsistent findings as to the developmental prognosis for infants conceived by assisted reproductive techniques such as in vitro fertilization and the use of fertility drugs. In the present study, the authors compared twins who were spontaneously conceived with those who were conceived through assisted reproductive technology. The authors found differences in birth weight and gestational age. Infants conceived by assisted reproductive technology fared worse than did those who were spontaneously conceived. The authors found no differences between the groups in mental development at 24 months of age, but they found evidence of differences in physical development. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Patterns of Mother-Infant Contact: The Significance of Lateral Preference

The use of assisted reproductive technology is increasing rapidly. Research, although sparse, has resulted in inconsistent findings as to the developmental prognosis for infants conceived by assisted reproductive techniques such as in vitro fertilization and the use of fertility drugs. In the present study, the authors compared twins who were spontaneously conceived with those who were conceived through assisted reproductive technology. The authors found differences in birth weight and gestational age. Infants conceived by assisted reproductive technology fared worse than did those who were spontaneously conceived. The authors found no differences between the groups in mental development at 24 months of age, but they found evidence of differences in physical development. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Cognitive and social-communication abilities among young children conceived by assisted reproductive technologies

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) lack biological filters that are part of the natural fertilization process and thus might enable the presence of abnormal genetic materials. Whereas the findings regarding neonatal and neurological risks among ART-conceived children are rather consistent, data regarding cognitive and social-emotional developmental outcomes are inconsistent. The aim of this study was to examine the association between ART and cognitive and social-communication outcomes among pre-school children. The results indicated that the cognitive and social-communicative abilities of the ART-conceived children were similar to those of the spontaneously conceived children; however, according to parental reports, children in the ART group had higher communicative skills and better motor abilities than spontaneously conceived children. These results should be interpreted with caution as we used measures that assess global cognitive abilities that may not be sensitive to more subtle differences of higher cognitive and social-communication abilities in infancy that may become more prominent later in life. Although infertile couples and professionals in the field of ART can be reassures by the current findings, further research is needed as well as follow-up evaluation of this population during school age.     

分离遗传与环境对儿童发展的影响：介绍一个新颖的研究方法

本文介绍一个可以用于研究遗传与环境互动的新颖方法。此研究收集了上千个4~10岁儿童的数据。这些儿童的出生都借助于不同的辅助受孕技术（Assisted Reproductive Technologies）,包括试管婴儿、精子捐赠、卵子捐赠、胚胎捐赠及代孕技术。本项目通过妇科（助孕）医院收集被试的行为数据,包括家庭互动、养育方式、父母婚姻质量、家庭成员的心理健康及经济状况等。本文选择性地介绍一些分析的结果,以彰显这种设计在分离遗传和产前产后环境对儿童发展的贡献。首先,我们比较了“助孕”儿童与“自然孕”儿童在父母冲突、父母对子女敌意以及儿童抑郁症状之间关系的异同。其次,我们比较了这两组儿童在父母抑郁症状、家庭关系质量以及儿童抑郁症状之间关系的异同。再次,本文介绍了这一可分离遗传与环境因素的研究设计。最后,我们讨论了这一设计对发展心理病干预及预防的意义     

Conceived Through Rape/Incest? Adoptive Parents’ Experiences Managing Uncertainty and Disclosure Surrounding their Children's Origins

Adoptive parents may be placed with children conceived under difficult circumstances, such as via rape or incest. At the same time, adoptive parents are generally encouraged to communicate openly with their children about their adoption stories and birth families. No research has examined the experiences of parents who adopt children who were conceived through rape or incest. This exploratory study examines how parents discuss their decision-making when adopting children conceived via rape or incest, how they manage varying levels of uncertainty about their children's origins, and whether and how they plan to disclose this information to children. The researchers used thematic analysis to examine the experiences of 11 couples (22 parents) interviewed at four time points after adopting children who were reportedly conceived via rape or incest. Findings revealed that even soon after adopting, parents discussed the need to eventually talk to their children about their conception circumstances. Parents generally struggled to determine how and when to disclose this information, particularly when they felt uncertain about the veracity of the conception stories they had been told. Some hoped to rely on professionals or birth mothers to guide them in these communications. Findings have implications for supporting adoptive families as they navigate the complexity of managing sensitive information and uncertainty when adopting children conceived through rape or incest. Practitioners should provide ongoing guidance to adoptive parents about how and when to disclose developmentally appropriate information to children about difficult conception circumstances.     

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis: Understanding What Parents Plan to Tell Their Children About Their Conception

Over 10,000 babies have been born by PGD and PGS worldwide (Simpson, Prenatal Diagnosis 30(7): 682–695 2010). The experience of parents who have undergone this procedure and their children’s well-being are documented, but no research to date has explored whether parents intend to tell their children how they were conceived and whether this raises special issues for them. PGD practitioners recommend research in this area as parents of children born by PGD increasingly ask questions pertaining to disclosure. We conducted 30 in-depth interviews with couples who have had a baby conceived by PGD. We explored what couples plan to tell their children about how they were conceived, when they plan to do this, and issues they anticipate may arise. The couples had a family history of a monogenic disorder or chromosome rearrangement. Six themes emerged which highlight key issues: (1) To tell or not to tell? (2) Primary reason for undergoing PGD, (3) The ideal time to tell, (4) Situations which may warrant earlier disclosure, (5) Words which parents might choose, and (6) Issues which parents anticipate may arise. We conclude that parents are likely to inform their children about PGD because there is an affected sibling or relative about whom they ask questions, and/or their children are carriers of a condition their parents feel obliged to tell them about. Parents felt they would benefit from access to a genetic counsellor at the time of disclosure and are optimistic about the future of reproductive technology for their children.     

Congruence of the Marital Relationship During Transition to Parenthood: A Study with Couples Who Conceived Spontaneously or Through Assisted Reproductive Technologies

In this study we examined the congruence between partners’ perceptions of their marital relationship during the transition to parenthood and the effect of depression during pregnancy on couples’ congruence during the early postpartum period. Thirty-one couples who conceived spontaneously, along with thirty-five who conceived through assisted reproductive technologies (ART), provided data on their marital relationship and depression at their 24th pregnancy week and four months after the partum. All couples reported a decrease in marital congruence. Couples who conceived through ART reported lower marital congruence. For these subjects, women’s depression was associated with lower congruence. Interventions that focus on strengthening the marital relationship across the transition to parenthood should assess and promote couples’ congruence.     

The Purchase of Fruitfulness: Assisted Conception and Reproductive Disability in a Seventeenth-Century Comedy

The relationships between socioeconomic and biogenetic reproduction are always socially constructed but not always acknowledged. These relationships are examined as they apply to an instance of infertility and assisted reproduction presented in a seventeenth-century English play, Thomas Middleton's 1613 comedy, A Chaste Maid in Cheapside. Middleton's satirization of the effects of secrecy on the category of reproductive disability is analyzed and its applicability to our own time considered. The discussion is in four parts, focusing on: the attribution of disabled status to one member of the couple, the wife; the use of this attribution to protect the husband's reputation for sexual and reproductive health; the concealment of the nature of assisted reproduction; and the interests of the child conceived with such assistance.     

Conversation Orientation Moderates the Relationship between Information Sharing of Medically Assisted Reproduction and Child Adjustment

Parents who experienced infertility have increasingly used medically assisted reproduction (MAR) to add children to their families over the past few decades. These parents will need to decide if they will tell their children about being conceived using MAR. Although MAR information sharing operates within family contexts, little is known about the role of conversation orientation—one family contextual factor—in child outcomes associated with MAR information sharing in middle childhood. Derived from the Family Communication Patterns Theory, this study proposes that conversation orientation moderates the associations between MAR information sharing and children's psychosocial adjustment. This proposal was tested using a sample of 81 6- to 12-year-old MAR-conceived children from 55 families and a structured observational measure of conversation orientation. Multiple regression analyses showed that MAR information sharing interacted with conversation orientation to influence children's behavioral and attention problems but not emotional problems. In families with high conversation orientation, MAR information sharing was not significantly associated with children's behavioral and attention problems. In families with low conversation orientation, MAR information sharing was significantly associated with an increase in children's behavioral and attention problems. Results of this exploratory study demonstrate the potential significance of general communication orientation in understanding child outcomes of MAR information sharing and highlight the needed family context nuances in MAR research.     

Training parents of hyperactive children in child management: A comparative outcome study

Parents of 44 hyperactive children were assigned to either a behavior modification group (PAT), a communications group (PET), or a delayed-treatment control group. Parents in the treatment groups participated in 9-week training workshops. Parents and their children were assessed before and after the workshops on measures that included ratings of hyperactivity and severity of problems, a daily checklist of problem occurrence, parental attitudes, and direct observations in a laboratory situation. Both treatment methods were more effective than a no-treatment control condition in reducing hyperactivity ratings, problem severity ratings, and daily problem occurrence. Additionally, parents receiving behavior modification training rated their children as more improved than did PET parents, were more willing to recommend the program to a friend, felt the program was more applicable to them, and were less likely to drop out of the program. Nine-month follow-up assessments indicated that treatment parents continued to view their children's behavior more positively than did control group parents. Results are discussed with respect to the implications that an educational approach to teaching child management can be an effective means of reducing behavioral problems in children, that methods differing in theoretical background and actual skills taught may result in similar outcomes, and that a "psychological," as opposed to a medical, approach to the treatment of hyperactive children can have considerable merit.     

Why Do Parents Want to Know their Child’s Carrier Status? A Qualitative Study

When a child is identified with a genetic condition, some parents want to know the carrier status of their other children. There has been little exploration of why parents want this information. To address this question, semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents of 32 children with cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy who wanted to know the carrier status of their other children. Data was analyzed using inductive content analysis. Parents expressed a range of reasons for desiring their child’s carrier status, which fell into two broad categories: 1) benefit for the parents and 2) perceived benefit to the child. Parents discussed the desire for certainty and peace of mind derived from having knowledge of their child’s status. The most commonly expressed reason for wanting to know their child’s carrier status was in order to communicate the information to their child to provide them with the ability to make informed reproductive decisions. These reasons suggest parents are seeking their children’s carrier information both as a coping strategy and to communicate carrier information as part of their role as a parent. This has important implications for genetic counseling practice, especially as international guidelines generally recommend against carrier testing in children.     

A Sociobiological Analysis of Namesaking Patterns in 322 American Families1

A study of the naming patterns used for 648 children in 322 American families provided mixed support for a number of hypotheses that are derived from the propositions that namesaking (the naming of a child after another person) functions as advertisement of genetic kinship when it may be in doubt and as a strategy to procure future investment of resources from the father and other relatives. Males and second-born children with older sisters were more likely to be namesaked, and birth order was a significant predictor of the probability of being namesaked for males. First-borns were more likely to be named after a patrilineal relative, but there was no tendency for children born early in a marriage to be namesaked more frequently than children born after many years of marriage. Parents who themselves were namesaked were more likely to namesake their own children.     

A Review of the Nurtured Heart Approach to Parenting: Evaluation of its Theoretical and Empirical Foundations

The Nurtured Heart Approach to parenting (NHA; Glasser & Easley, 2008) is summarized and evaluated in terms of its alignment with current theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence in family studies and developmental science. Originally conceived and promoted as a behavior management approach for parents of difficult children (i.e., with behavior disorders), NHA is increasingly offered as a valuable strategy for parents of any children, despite a lack of published empirical support. Parents using NHA are trained to minimize attention to undesired behaviors, provide positive attention and praise for compliance with rules, help children be successful by scaffolding and shaping desired behavior, and establish a set of clear rules and consequences. Many elements of the approach have strong support in the theoretical and empirical literature; however, some of the assumptions are more questionable, such as that negative child behavior can always be attributed to unintentional positive reinforcement by parents responding with negative attention. On balance, NHA appears to promote effective and validated parenting practices, but its effectiveness now needs to be tested empirically.     

《周易》责任伦理思想浅析

本文以西方责任伦理理论作为参照,来诠释<周易>所蕴含的责任伦理思想,认为<周易>责任伦理意识的生成体现于责任主体对行为之不良后果的强烈忧患,<周易>对责任主体行为的调适以前瞻得到的后果为价值导向,<周易>通过对行为之不良后果进行积极转化而实现其责任伦理价值.     

Sadomasochism in the neuroses conceived of as a pathological compromise formation.

Masochistic phenomena in adults are discussed as derivatives of conscious and/or unconscious fantasies. These masochistic fantasies are always associated with conscious and/or unconscious narcissistic and sadistic fantasies. These fantasies, like all fantasies in adults, are conceived of as compromise formations. After a selected review of the literature, analytic data are presented to highlight the clinical advantages of a contemporary elaboration of the structural hypothesis for the understanding of sadomasochistic and sadonarcissistic phenomena.     

《易经》是否属于原始思维

有学者依据列维·布留尔的原始思维理论,认为《易经》属于原始思维。但事实上,《易经》无论从创作时代还是思维内容上都与原始思维有着本质上不同,《易经》包含着原始思维所不具备的理性思维。之所以误解《易经》为原始思维,主要是投有真正理解《易经》的“立象以尽意”的思维表达方式。《易经》以其意象表达了辩证、整体的宇宙观,并以此指导现实的人世生活,开创了中国人“推天道以明人事”的形而上学。     

Parent and Family Characteristics and Their Associates in a Follow-Up of Outpatient Children with ADHD

We examined associations between child symptoms, demographic variables, parent and family characteristics in a long-term follow-up study of 214 outpatient children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The children’s mean age was 12.6 (SD = 2.1) years, and the mean interval from diagnosis to follow-up was 3.7 (SD = 2.2) years. We compared the characteristics of the clinical group with a community group (n = 110) recruited from the same catchment area. Parents filled out questionnaires on child symptoms, parent characteristics, and family functioning. The results showed that parents of young boys (<13 years) experienced more parenting stressors than those of adolescent boys (≥13 years), but the opposite was true for parents of girls. Parents of children with both ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms in the clinical range experienced significantly more parent and family dysfunctions than those of children with ADHD only (even after controlling for levels of ADHD symptoms in the child). Parents of children in the community group experienced significantly less parent and family dysfunctions than those of children with ADHD. Partial correlations between parent characteristics and child symptoms showed that oppositional symptoms were most strongly associated with parent and family dysfunction. Fathers experienced significantly less parenting stress, parental efficacy, and child involvement than mothers. We conclude that parents of children with ADHD experienced considerable strain related to a broad range of parent and family characteristics. Assessment of such characteristics should be part of routine assessment procedures and a prerequisite for family-focused treatment of children with ADHD.     

Teenage Childbearing,Reproductive Justice,and Infant Mental Health

Reproductive justice advocates emphasize the rights of women to choose to have children, to decide the conditions under which they give birth, and to parent their children with support, safety, and dignity. This article examines what a reproductive justice perspective contributes to infant mental health work with teenage mothers and their families. It explores the historical framing of teenage pregnancy in which young mothers are the cause of a variety of social problems and in which the primary policy and practice approach is pregnancy prevention. The article offers alternative framings of teenage childbearing, based on reproductive justice principles, which focus on social conditions surrounding teenage parenthood and the meaning of motherhood in the lives of young women. These alternative frames shift the practice agenda to eradicating unjust social conditions and providing supports for young women in their roles as parents. The article then describes ways in which two infant mental health programs have incorporated reproductive justice principles into their work with young families: Chicago's community doula model and Florida's Young Parents Project for court-involved teenage parents. Finally, the article extracts a set of principles deriving from a reproductive justice perspective that are relevant to infant mental health work with young families.     

Parents think their sons are brighter than their daughters: sex differences in parental self-estimations and estimations of their children's multiple intelligences

In this study, 156 participants, predominantly White British adults (M age = 44.3 years) rated themselves on overall IQ and on H. Gardner's (1983) 7 intelligence subtypes. Parents (n = 120) also estimated the intelligence of their children. Men's self-estimates were significantly higher than women's (110.15 vs. 104.84). Participants thought their verbal, mathematical, and spatial intelligence scores were the best indicators of their own overall intelligence. Parents estimated that their sons had significantly higher IQs than their daughters (115.21 vs. 107.49). Self-estimates and estimates of children's multiple intelligences were higher for men and sons, significantly so for logical-mathematical and spatial intelligence. Parents rated 2nd-born daughters as having significantly higher verbal and musical intelligence than their male counterparts. Higher parental IQ self-estimates corresponded with higher IQ estimates for children. Results for 1st-born children were clearest and showed the most significant differences. The findings are interpreted in terms of sociocultural and familial influences and the possibility of actual sex differences in particular abilities.