Oral health and dental well‐being: testing a self‐determination theory model

This study tested a self‐determination theory (SDT) process model of oral health and subjective dental well‐being. The results showed that: (1) patients' perceptions of autonomy‐supportive dental professionals were significantly positively predictive of patients' psychological needs satisfaction in treatment; (2) needs satisfaction was significantly related to perceived dental competence (positive), autonomous motivation (positive), and controlled motivation (negative) for dental care; (3) perceived competence was significantly positively, and controlled motivation was significantly negatively associated with self‐rated oral health and oral‐health‐related quality of life; (4) autonomous motivation for dental treatment was significantly positively associated with valuing continued dental treatment; and (5) the three oral‐health‐related variables were all significantly positively linked to subjective dental well‐being. A structural equation model supported the SDT process model.     

Self‐Enhancement on a Self‐Categorization Leash: Evidence for a Dual‐Process Model of First‐ and Third‐Person Perceptions

Research suggests that first‐ and third‐person perceptions are driven by the motive to self‐enhance and cognitive processes involving the perception of social norms. This article proposes and tests a dual‐process model that predicts an interaction between cognition and motivation. Consistent with the model, Experiment 1 (N = 112) showed that self‐enhancement drove influence judgments when messages were normatively neutral—people reported first‐person perceptions for in‐group‐favoring messages and third‐person perceptions for out‐group‐favoring messages. Experiment 2 (N = 208) showed an additive effect when social norms were also in‐group‐enhancing, but showed a decreased effect when social norms and group‐enhancement were discordant. The findings are hard to reconcile with pure motivational or cognitive explanations, but are consistent with the proposed dual‐process model.     

How normative and social identification processes predict self‐determination to engage in derogatory behaviours against outgroup hockey fans

Bringing together self‐determination theory, intergroup theories based on the social identity approach, and normative approaches, three studies conducted among hockey fans tested if social norms and social identity predict greater self‐determined motivation to engage in derogatory behaviours against an outgroup team and higher frequency of these behaviours. Higher self‐determination was conceptualised as an indicator of internalisation. In Study 1, hockey fans who identified more strongly as fans of the Montreal Canadiens (N = 181) displayed a stronger positive association between the perceived norm in favour of outgroup derogation and self‐determined motivation to engage in derogatory behaviours against fans of an outgroup team. This interaction also emerged on the frequency with which the derogatory behaviours were enacted. In Studies 2 and 3 (Ns = 105 and 116), this norm by social identity interaction was replicated on both the self‐determination and the frequency outcomes for fans of a diversity of teams in the National Hockey League. In Study 3, these findings were observed over and above a manipulation that framed derogatory behaviours as being either harmful or beneficial. Results are discussed in light of motivational theories, normative approaches, and intergroup theories based on the social identity approach. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Motivation and dropout in female handballers: a 21‐month prospective study

The purpose of this study was to test a motivational model of sport dropout that integrates the four‐stage causal sequence proposed by the Hierarchical Model of Vallerand ( 1997 ) and elements from achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989 ). The model posits that a task involving motivational climate facilitates, while an ego‐involving climate undermines, perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. In turn, feeling incompetent, non‐autonomous, and unrelated to others undermines self‐determined motivation toward handball which leads to the intention of dropping out of the game. Finally, such intentions are implemented later. Three hundred and thirty‐five female handballers completed a motivation questionnaire and were followed for 21 months. Results from structural equation modelling analyses provided basic support for the model. The findings are discussed in the light of their theoretical and applied implications. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Motivational Model of Daily Hassles,Physical Symptoms,and Future Work Intentions Among Police Officers1

This study tested a motivational model of daily hassles, physical symptoms, and future work intentions with a sample of 122 police officers. In agreement with self‐determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002), path analyses showed that police officers who perceived their immediate supervisor as highly supportive of their autonomy were found to report higher levels of self‐determined motivation toward work. In turn, higher levels of self‐determined motivation were found to be associated with higher future work intentions and lower levels of reported daily hassles. Finally, daily hassles were found to be positively associated with reported physical symptoms. Contrary to our hypotheses, perception of competence support from supervisors was not found to be significantly associated with self‐determined motivation. Instead, competence support was found to be negatively associated with daily hassles.     

A test of self‐determination theory in school physical education

Background. Contemporary research conducted in the context of school physical education (PE) has increasingly embraced various tenets of self‐determination theory ( Deci & Ryan, 1985 , 1991 ). Despite this increase in research attention, some postulates of the framework remain unexplored (e.g. impact of a need‐supportive climate). As such, the present study sought to provide a more comprehensive test of self‐determination theory. The present work also examined Deci and Ryan's claim that the motivational sequence embraced by their framework is invariant across gender. Aims. (i) To examine a model of motivation based on the tenets of self‐determination theory, and (ii) explore the invariance of the model across gender. Sample. Participants were 950 British secondary school students (443 male, 490 female, 17 gender not specified) Method. Participants completed a questionnaire that included measures of need support, need satisfaction, motivation, positive and negative affect, task challenge, and concentration. Results. Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis revealed that students who perceived a need‐supporting environment experienced greater levels of need satisfaction. Need satisfaction predicted intrinsic motivation, which, in turn, linked to adaptive PE‐related outcomes. In contrast, need satisfaction negatively predicted amotivation, which, in turn, was positively predictive of feelings of unhappiness. Multi‐sample SEM invariance testing revealed the model to be largely invariant for male and female students. Conclusions. The results of the study provide support for self‐determination theory and corroborate the application of the framework to the context of school PE. Further, we largely found support for the invariance of the motivational processes embraced by self‐determination theory across gender.     

The effect of embodied emotive states on cognitive categorization

Research has uncovered that positive affect broadens cognitive categorization. The motivational dimensional model, however, posits that positive affect is not a unitary construct with only one cognitive consequence. Instead, this model puts forth that there are different positive affects varying in approach motivational intensity. According to this model, only positive affects lower in motivational intensity should broaden cognitive processes, whereas positive affects higher in motivational intensity should narrow cognitive processes. Consistent with these predictions, high approach positive affect has been shown to narrow attention, whereas low approach positive affect has been shown to broaden it (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2008). High approach positive affect, therefore, might narrow categorization. Two experiments investigated this possibility by having participants respond to cognitive categorization tasks in 3 body postures designed to elicit different levels of approach motivation: reclining backward, which should evoke low approach motivation; sitting upright, which should evoke moderate approach motivation; and leaning forward, which should evoke high approach motivation. Participants smiled while in each posture in order to experience positive affect. Experiment 1 provided initial support for the idea that high approach positive affect narrows categorization and low approach positive affect broadens categorization. Experiment 2 replicated these findings with improved smiling instructions. These results extend previous work by showing that the motivational model's predictions hold for basic attentional processes as well as higher level cognitive processes such as categorization.     

Need for Cognition Promotes Adaptive Style of Self‐Focusing with the Mediation of Effortful Control

Previous studies have indicated that “need for cognition” (NfC), which is the tendency to enjoy effortful cognitive activity, affects various cognitive processes and behaviors. However, the effects of NfC on mental adaptation have not been investigated. According to previous studies, it can be hypothesized that NfC decreases maladaptive self‐focusing, which is called self‐rumination, through increasing effortful control (EC); therefore, we hypothesized that NfC would indirectly inhibit self‐rumination through the mediation of EC. As we expected, the results of a cross‐sectional questionnaire study with 152 undergraduate participants indicated a negative indirect association between NfC and self‐rumination through the mediation of EC. Secondarily, the present results revealed a direct positive association between NfC and adaptive type of self‐focusing, which is called self‐reflection. The present study is the first to propose the possible contribution of NfC to mental health through decreasing self‐rumination and increasing self‐reflection.     

Positive academic emotions moderate the relationship between self‐regulation and academic achievement

Background. Research has shown how academic emotions are related to achievement and to cognitive/motivational variables that promote achievement. Mediated models have been proposed to account for the relationships among academic emotions, cognitive/motivational variables, and achievement, and research has supported such mediated models, particularly with negative emotions. Aims. The study tested the hypotheses: (1) self‐regulation and the positive academic emotions of enjoyment and pride are positive predictors of achievement; and (2) enjoyment and pride both moderate the relationship between self‐regulation and achievement. Sample. Participants were 1,345 students enrolled in various trigonometry classes in one university. Methods. Participants answered the Academic Emotions Questionnaire‐Math (Pekrun, Goetz, & Frenzel, 2005) and a self‐regulation scale (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991) halfway through their trigonometry class. The students’ final grades in the course were regressed to self‐regulation, positive emotions, and the interaction terms to test the moderation effects. Results and Conclusions. Enjoyment and pride were both positive predictors of grades; more importantly, both moderated the relationship between self‐regulation and grades. For students who report higher levels of both positive emotions, self‐regulation was positively associated with grades. However, for those who report lower levels of pride, self‐regulation was not related to grades; and, for those who reported lower levels of enjoyment, self‐regulation was negatively related to grades. The results are discussed in terms of how positive emotions indicate positive appraisals of task/outcome value, and thus enhance the positive links between cognitive/motivational variables and learning.     

Self-Determination,Perception of Peer Pressure,and Drinking Among College Students1

Based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985b), the present research tested a model that incorporated motivational orientation, extrinsic reasons for drinking, and perceptions of peer pressure as predictors of drinking among college students. In a sample of undergraduates, support was found for a path model in which global motivation predicted extrinsic reasons for drinking, which predicted perceptions of peer pressure, which in turn predicted alcohol consumption. In addition, the relation between peer pressure and drinking was stronger for those who were oriented toward feeling controlled. Support was found for a similar model in a sample of fraternity students. Results support previous research on self-determination and health.     

Managing one's social identity: Successful and unsuccessful identity management

This work explores the motivational dynamics of social identity management. Following social identity theory, we hypothesized that a threat to a positive social identity elicits specific negative emotions (i.e., outgroup‐directed anger) and motivates identity management. Successful identity management restores a positive social identity and decreases outgroup‐directed anger. However, when a successful identity management is blocked (e.g., because of limited cognitive resources), identity management will be unsuccessful and outgroup‐directed anger will remain at a higher level. This effect of unsuccessful identity management on outgroup‐directed anger should be particularly strong for group members who highly value their group (i.e., high group‐based self‐esteem). A negative comparison outcome is discrepant with these group members' positive view of the ingroup, and therefore, unsuccessful identity management should especially elicit negative emotions (i.e., anger) towards the threatening outgroup. Two studies tested these predictions. Study 1 (N = 110) showed that participants' outgroup‐directed anger increased when threatened under cognitive load. Study 2 (N = 99) demonstrated that this was particularly true for participants high in group‐based self‐esteem. The results' implications for research on the motivational processes underlying social identity management are discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Motivation for Dental Home Care: Testing a Self‐Determination Theory Model1

The present research developed the Self‐Regulation for Dental Home Care Questionnaire (SRDHCQ), based on self‐determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), and used it in an SDT process model of dental health behaviors and self‐rated oral health. In this model, patients' perceptions of autonomy‐supportive (relative to controlling) dental professionals were expected to positively predict patients' psychological needs satisfaction in treatment. Needs satisfaction was expected to be positively related to autonomous motivation for dental home care and perceived dental competence, which were expected to be positively associated with self‐rated oral health and dental health behaviors. Confirmatory factor analysis of the 5‐factor SRDHCQ model fit the data very well, and a structural equation model supported the hypothesized process model.     

Goal Systemic Effects in the Context of Choice and Social Judgment

The present paper features a novel approach to motivation and self‐regulation couched in conceptual terms of goal systems theory ( Kruglanski et al., 2002 ). Goal systems theory adopts a cognitive view of motivation and highlights the interrelations of goals and means. The cognitive aspects of the theory have to do with the architecture of cognitions, and the finality of cognitive resources. The motivational aspects of the theory relate to the relation of the goal/means constructs to the dynamics of action and the affective phenomena that accompany goal pursuit. A goal systemic analysis not only affords a better understanding of classic self‐regulatory phenomena, but also offers new insights into various psychological problems such as choice and judgment.     

A Self‐Categorization Explanation for Opinion Consensus Perceptions

The public expression of opinions (and related communicative activities) hinges upon the perception of opinion consensus. Current explanations for opinion consensus perceptions typically focus on egocentric and other biases, rather than functional cognitions. Using self‐categorization theory we showed that opinion consensus perceptions flow from cognitions regarding the fit between issues and group prototypes. Strong normative fit enhanced perceptions of ingroup opinion consensus (Experiments 1 and 2), and consensus perceptions varied as a function of comparison outgroups (Experiment 3), ingroup prototype salience (Experiment 4), and levels of identity threat (Experiment 5). Self‐categorization theory has the potential to integrate a variety of cognitive and motivational processes to provide a comprehensive explanation for opinion consensus perceptions.     

The ‘why’ and ‘why not’ of job search behaviour: their relation to searching,unemployment experience,and well‐being

Two studies (n = 273 and 254) used self‐determination theory (SDT) to examine unemployed people's motivation both to search and not to search for a job. The self‐regulation questionnaire format (Ryan & Connell, 1989) was used to assess participants' autonomous and controlled job‐search motivation (the ‘why’ of job search) as well as their amotivation for searching. Additionally, both autonomous and controlled motivation for not searching (the ‘why not’ of job search) was assessed. Results provide validity for these five motivational constructs and indicate, in line with SDT, that the constructs predicted reports of search behaviour, affective experiences, and well‐being. The addition of autonomous and controlled motivation for not searching contributed additional predictive power beyond the motivational constructs that focused only on searching. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of achievement goal orientations in students' perceptions of and preferences for classroom environment

Background . Recent research on achievement motivation has begun to examine the effects of environmental factors affecting students' motivational beliefs and goal tendencies. However, when interpreting and applying the results, individual factors underlying students' different perceptions of their learning environment are often ignored. An implicit assumption seems to be that regardless of their dispositional differences (e.g. motivational basis), students will experience and benefit from instructional practices in the same way. Aims . This paper highlights the importance of students' dispositional motivational factors when examining differences in their perceptions of and preferences for the learning environment. The study builds on a conception of student motivation that emphasizes the interaction of individual and contextual factors. Sample and method . Questionnaires served as self‐report tools and assessed students' achievement goal orientations, self‐esteem, causality beliefs, academic withdrawal and perceptions of and preferences for the learning environment. The sample consisted of 208 sixth grade elementary school students. Results . Based on latent class cluster analysis and one‐way analyses of variance, it was found that students' perceptions of and preferences for the learning environment vary depending on differences in students' motivational tendencies. Conclusions . Students' dispositional motivational characteristics should be taken into account both in theoretical considerations and in instructional interventions.     

Characterizing the motivational orientation of students in higher education: A naturalistic study in three Hong Kong universities

Background . Consideration of motivation in higher education has often been drawn upon theories and research that were based upon school or workplace studies. Aims . This paper reports an open naturalistic study to better characterize the motivational orientation of students in higher education. Method . Open semi‐structured individual interviews were conducted with 36 students from three universities in Hong Kong. The analysis used an exploratory grounded theory approach. Results . Motivation was characterized as a framework with six continua with positive and negative poles. On enrolment, students had positions on the six facets of motivation, which shifted as they progressed through their degree, according to perceptions of their teaching and learning environment. The positive poles of the six continua were given labels: compliance, individual goal setting, interest, career, sense of belonging and university lifestyle. Conclusion . The formulation of motivational orientation is consistent with contemporary social cognitive theories of motivation in that it has been characterized as a multifaceted phenomenon, with students expressing context‐dependent multiple motives.     

Students’ motivational responses toward school physical education and their relationship to general self-esteem and health-related quality of life

ObjectivesIn addition to encouraging a physically active lifestyle, the aims of school physical education (PE) also encompass the promotion and development of self-esteem and perceptions of health. Using self-determination theory [SDT; Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In: R.A. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Perspectives on motivation (Vol. 38, pp. 237–288). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska] as a conceptual framework, we examined three competing models specifying relations among motivational processes toward PE, students’ general self-esteem, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL).DesignA field correlational prospective design.MethodThree hundred British secondary school students (M age=13.51 years; SD=.76) responded to a multi-section inventory assessing their motivational processes toward school PE. One week later, data pertaining to general self-esteem and HRQoL were obtained.ResultsFollowing minor modifications, structural equation analysis showed the three competing models to provide excellent fit to the study data. All models showed (i) perceptions of autonomy support provided by the PE teacher to positively predict autonomy, competence, and relatedness, (ii) competence and autonomy to positively predict autonomous motivation toward PE, and (iii) direct paths from competence to general self-esteem and from relatedness to HRQoL. Model 1 showed autonomous motivation to positively predict general self-esteem, which in turn positively predicted HRQoL. Model 2 supported a positive path from autonomous motivation to HRQoL, with HRQoL positively predicting general self-esteem. Model 3 supported general self-esteem and HRQoL to be distinct, yet related, dependent variables that were positively predicted by autonomous motivation toward PE.ConclusionThese findings call for future work to examine the causal associations among motivational processes, self-esteem, and HRQoL. The theoretical contributions of SDT to such work are discussed.     

Exploring Causes of the Self‐serving Bias

The self‐serving bias refers to a tendency for people to take personal responsibility for their desirable outcomes yet externalize responsibility for their undesirable outcomes. We review a variety of explanations for this attribution bias. Although researchers have historically pitted cognitive and motivational explanations for the self‐serving bias against one another, cognitive and motivation processes often work in tandem to lead people to conclude that they are responsible for the desirable but not the undesirable outcomes.     

Updating Allport's and Batson's Framework of Religious Orientations: A Reevaluation from the Perspective of Self‐Determination Theory and Wulff's Social Cognitive Model

We theoretically and empirically evaluate Allport's intrinsic‐extrinsic and Batson's quest religious orientations through the lens of self‐determination theory (SDT) and Wulff's social‐cognitive model. Confirming our theoretical analysis, we find that Allport's intrinsic‐extrinsic dichotomy fails to correspond empirically to the differentiation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation within SDT. Whereas Allport's intrinsic religious orientation was positively related to internalized extrinsic motivation, his two extrinsic (i.e., personal and social) religious orientations were not systematically related to any of the discerned motives within SDT. Furthermore, Batson's quest orientation was unrelated to any of the SDT concepts but was positively related to symbolic disbelief. The present findings suggest that Allport's motivational orientations model needs both refinement and relabeling to better fit with recent theoretical evolutions in the field of motivational psychology.