Empathy,Vulnerability and Anxiety

ABSTRACT

A concept of empathy as openness to the emotional perspective of another is developed in opposition to a concept of sympathy as agreement with the emotional perspective of another. Empathy involves knowledge of how things are emotionally for the other person, which is not the same thing as knowledge of the other person’s emotions. Being open to another perspective requires the capacity to hold two perspectives in mind simultaneously – one that is one’s own perspective and at the same time the adopted perspective. This is why empathy can be so challenging for someone suffering from some kinds of anxiety.     

共情的性别差异

共情指的是个体在与人交往的过程中共享并理解他人的情绪状态的倾向, 包括认知共情和情绪共情两种成分。共情在学前阶段没有性别差异。进入中小学阶段以后, 共情出现了性别差异。一方面, 共情的性别差异与个体自身的生理成熟有关。随着年龄增长, 两性逐渐趋向生理成熟, 荷尔蒙分泌增加并出现差异, 其中催产素有助于情绪共情, 睾丸酮则与认知共情有负相关, 两性的共情水平也因此有了显著差异。另一方面, 共情的性别差异与社会性别角色倾向有关。女性的性别角色以关注他人为导向, 与共情有直接相关, 男性的性别角色以关注公平公正为导向, 与共情没有相关。当两性习得各自的性别角色以后, 他们的共情表现就出现了差异, 这一差异在情绪共情方面较为突出。有关共情性别差异的研究虽然取得了丰富的成果, 但仍然有进一步深入挖掘的空间, 未来的研究需要在视角上注重从年龄、性别和文化交互作用的角度进行考察, 在理论上考虑从能力和倾向性的维度区分共情, 在内容上丰富对影响性别差异的各项因素的研究。     

Attentional bias toward negative and positive pictorial stimuli and its relationship with distorted cognitions,empathy, and moral reasoning among men with intellectual disabilities who have committed crimes

The aims of this study were to examine: (a) whether men with intellectual disabilities who have a history of criminal offending attend to affective pictorial stimuli in a biased manner, and (b) whether there is a relationship between an affective attentional bias and offense‐supportive cognitions, empathy, and moral reasoning. Forty‐six men with intellectual disabilities who had a documented history of criminal offending, and 51 men who also had intellectual disabilities, but no such history, were recruited and asked to complete a computer‐based dot‐probe task using affective pictorial stimuli with randomization, along with measures of distorted cognitions, empathy, and moral reasoning. Those with a history of criminal offending endorsed significantly more offense‐supportive cognitions, had significantly lower general empathy, and more “mature” moral reasoning, as well as a significant attentional bias toward affective pictorial stimuli. Attentional bias significantly predicted offense‐supportive cognitions, and vice versa, having controlled for offense history, and Full‐Scale IQ, but this was not the case for empathy or moral reasoning. While the findings require replication, interventions that aim to modify attention bias with this population should be tested.     

The Interplay of Empathy and Individualism in Support for Social Welfare Policies

Public support for government welfare programs is grounded in two potentially conflicting factors: a belief in individualism which undermines support for welfare assistance and the capacity for empathy which potentially enhances support. However, empathy is an expensive psychological commodity subject to pervasive up- and down-regulation. This article examines the degree to which a belief in individualism affects the expression of compassionate support for a person in need among those with the capacity for empathy. In two online survey experiments, empathic ability powerfully increases support for a welfare recipient and social welfare policies when it does not conflict with individualism. But, empathic ability decreases compassion and support for government welfare among strong individualists. Evidence that individualists down-regulate empathy for someone in need of government assistance is consistent with the conservative view that welfare promotes dependency and undermines individual agency. In contrast, charitable assistance is not associated with long-term dependency, and we find that empathy is up-regulated by strong individualists to generate charitable support for the same individual to whom they denied government assistance. The up- and down-regulation of empathy in response to someone in need of government welfare helps illuminate the sharp divisions over social welfare policy among the American public.     

Sensory empathy and enactment1

The authors propose the concept of sensory empathy which emerges through contact between analyst and patient as they get in touch with an area concerning the primary bond. This area is not so much based on thoughts and fantasies as it is on physical sensations. Sensory empathy has to do with that instrument described by Freud as pertaining to the unconscious of any human, which enables one person to interpret unconscious communications of another person. The authors link this concept to that of enactment precisely because the latter concerns unconscious, early elements that fi nd in the act a fi rst meaningful expression. It involves both analyst and patient. In other words, the authors wish to emphasize the importance of the analytical process maintaining contact with that immense fi eld of human interaction that can be defi ned as primary sensory area and which becomes intertwined with the evolution of affects. Clinical examples are provided to clarify these hypotheses.     

心理理论对幼儿白谎行为的影响：认知移情的部分中介作用

采用失望礼物研究范式考察心理理论与幼儿白谎行为的关系,及认知移情和情绪移情在其中的中介作用。结果发现：（1）幼儿的白谎行为发生率、心理理论、认知移情和情绪移情能力随年龄的增长而提高;（2）控制年龄与言语能力后,幼儿的心理理论与认知移情呈显著正相关、与白谎行为也呈显著正相关,且认知移情与白谎行为呈显著正相关;（3）幼儿的认知移情在心理理论和白谎行为间起部分中介的作用。结果表明：幼儿的心理理论可直接影响其白谎行为,也可通过认知移情的中介作用间接影响其白谎行为。     

幼儿教师共情的负面效应：一个有调节的中介模型

为探讨共情负面效应的作用机制及条件,采用共情量表、Maslach职业倦怠问卷教育版、情绪劳动策略量表和领悟社会支持量表对253名幼儿教师进行调查。结果发现：(1)幼儿教师的情绪共情正向影响情绪枯竭,该影响作用可以通过情绪劳动这一中介实现;(2)幼儿教师的认知共情负向影响情绪枯竭;(3)社会支持调节了幼儿教师情绪劳动对情绪共情与情绪枯竭关系的中介过程的后半段路径。研究结果对幼儿教师心理健康有重要意义。     

作为情境变量的移情对暴力态度的影响

本研究将移情作为影响个体暴力态度的情境变量,通过对移情的启动来考察状态移情对暴力态度的影响。实验1在启动被试的移情感后,采用暴力IAT的方法考察被试内隐暴力态度的变化;实验2则在移情启动之后,用FMMU变态人格危险性评估问卷中的冲动倾向（VIO）考察被试的外显暴力的变化。实验结果显示,在启动被试的移情感后,我们没有发现被试的内隐和外显暴力态度发生显著变化,但经移情和性别的交互作用检验后发现,移情的启动减弱了男性被试的外显暴力态度,而对女性被试没有影响。研究结果表明,移情与暴力态度之间不存在内隐联结关系。根据以往的研究结果,移情对暴力态度的影响一是取决于意识层面的认知加工过程,二是与个体的特质性移情水平的高低有关。     

特质积极共情：一种高利他性的人格品质

特质积极共情是对他人积极情绪信息感受和分享的能力。目前对特质积极共情的研究刚刚起步,在相关概念内涵上还有待进一步丰富和检验。特质积极共情可以有效促进亲社会行为倾向和良好人际关系的形成,是一种高利他性的人格品质。未来研究中,需要在明确并丰富特质积极共情的内涵界定基础上,开发更为有效的测量工具,探讨其促进社会功能背后的作用机制,并开展提升积极共情能力的理论研究和教育实践。     

临床共情与护理技术结合：人性化的护理

临床共情是一种能体验患者内心世界的能力,通过患者的言语和非言语表达,觉察和认识患者情感和情绪需求,并对其做出恰当的回应.临床共情具有科学的理论和实践基础,具有缓解患者心理上的痛苦,改善护患关系,促进患者康复等作用.在当今复杂的医疗环境下,务必要重视共情培养,适时运用临床共情.然而,我们强调临床共情的重要作用,并不能忽视护理技术的根本作用,根除躯体上的病变仍有赖于护理技术的有效性.在临床护理实践中,坚持共情与护理技术的有机结合,推进人性化的护理构建.     

Counselor Empathy; Religiosity; and Lesbian,Gay, and Bisexual Perspectives

Values-based conflicts, such as between counselor religiosity and ability to work with lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) clients, can present a challenge for counselors and trainees who seek to provide ethical and competent care. Because empathy can facilitate understanding a client's frame of reference, the authors examined the relationships between counselor religiosity, empathy, and LGB perspectives, as well as the potential mediating effects of empathy on values conflicts. The authors discuss implications for counselor education and practice.     

Are emotional intelligent workers also more empathic?

This paper analyzes whether emotional intelligence and self‐monitoring are related to empathy among a sample of workers in both the public and private employment sectors. Two hundred and forty‐two employees (42.5% men and 57.5% women) with a mean age of 35.21 years (SD = 10.07, range 18–61) completed a questionnaire that measured the variables of interest. The results showed that emotion regulation, a dimension of emotional intelligence, accounts for most of the variance of empathy, followed by the ability to understand emotions and the management of others' emotions. Furthermore, gender did not yield any moderator effect on the relations among emotional intelligence, self‐monitoring and empathy. We conclude that the intrapersonal aspects of emotional intelligence, in particular, emotion regulation, help explain the empathy of workers. The implications of these findings are discussed herein.     

The effects of empathy on search efforts for missing persons

People have difficulty sighting missing persons, partially because people's limited cognitive resources are required for searching. As a result, people sometimes do not devote resources to searching. This research will examine whether empathy increases the resources devoted to searching and search performance. In Experiment 1, we will manipulate empathy toward a formerly missing person and measure willingness to volunteer to search and actual search performance. In Experiment 2, we will manipulate empathy felt toward a missing person. We will measure the time participants spend studying the missing person's photograph. We hypothesize that participants induced to feel empathy will indicate more willingness to search (Exp 1 & 2), put more effort toward searching (Exp 1), and spend more time studying the photograph (Exp 2) than those not induced to feel empathy. If empathy increases search effort and performance, it could be induced in actual missing persons cases to increase recovery rates.     

情境对共情的影响

共情指的是个体在与人交往的过程中共享并理解他人的情绪状态的倾向, 包括认知共情和情绪共情两种成分。现实生活中的共情总是发生在一定的具体情境中, 受到情境因素的影响。其中, 情境的公开性或私密性、意义性等均在不同程度上影响了共情的产生或共情反应的强烈程度。共情对象在特定情境中与共情主体之间的群际关系、人际关系等也是重要的情境因素, 共情主体对于和自己属于同一群体或拥有较亲密人际关系的他人更容易产生共情。情境对共情的影响通过自上而下和自下而上两种方式实现。有关情境对共情的影响研究虽然取得了一定的成果, 但仍然有进一步拓展的空间, 未来的研究需要在情境因素的内涵上进行深入挖掘, 从认知加工的角度对情境影响共情的机制做更为细致、微观地解析, 还可以从共情主体的视角明确个体差异如何调节了情境对共情的影响作用。     

自爱与他爱:自恋、共情与内隐利他的关系

自恋者具有低共情的人格特征,而共情是引发利他行为的重要动力。本文通过两个实验研究试图揭示不同情境下,自恋对共情与内隐利他的影响。结果表明:(1)自恋组与非自恋组被试均存在内隐利他倾向,且自恋组的内隐利他倾向显著低于非自恋组;(2)自恋组的共情能力显著低于非自恋组,其中,自恋组在情绪共情上显著低于非自恋组被试,两组在认知共情上差异不显著;(3)共情诱发对自恋组被试的共情与内隐利他均有显著影响。启动条件下自恋组被试的共情水平与内隐利他倾向显著高于控制条件下自恋组被试,且达到与非自恋组被试相同的水平,而非自恋组被试的共情与内隐利他倾向在两种实验条件下差异不显著;(4)共情诱发显著提高了自恋组被试的情感而非认知共情水平。     

共情特质的神经生物学基础

共情特质的个体差异是心理学研究领域中的一个重要主题。近些年来, 研究者开始关注导致人们共情能力高低有别的神经生物学基础问题。研究发现, 不论是情感共情特质还是认知共情特质, 其个体差异均在大脑进行共情反应、脑结构态及静息态功能连接上有所体现。它们共同说明, 人们的共情能力与其具身模仿能力, 情感加工能力及情绪理解能力密切相关。不仅如此, 共情特质也具有高度的可遗传性, 一些基因类型与该能力存在着紧密的关系。在今后的研究中, 需要扩展对共情特质结构的进一步认识, 关注环境和基因在影响共情特质上存在的交互作用, 并努力将理论研究成果应用于共情能力训练和提高的临床实践中。     

Comparison of Cognitive Empathy,Emotional Empathy,and Social Functioning in Different Age Groups

Empathic responses and optimum social functioning are associated with psychological and physical health benefits. The aim of this study was to compare emotional empathy, cognitive empathy, and social functioning among different age groups, including adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. One hundred and ninety‐six people (92 males, 104 females) with the age range of 14 to 85 assigned to four age groups (adolescents, young adults, middle adults, and older adults) participated in this study. Participants were asked to complete the Empathy Quotient, the Revised Eyes Test, and Social Functioning Scale. The results showed that there were significant differences between older adults and other groups. Emotional empathy increased in older people, but there were deficits in some aspects of cognitive empathy. Also, the findings showed an age‐related decline in social functioning. Due to deficits in cognitive empathy affected by ageing, older adults showed some impairment in their ability to interpret emotional cues. This age‐related decline in cognitive empathy might be a reason for weak social functioning in older adults. Therefore, considering these elements would be helpful to provide healthcare strategies for elderly people.     

孤独症儿童的情绪共情能力及情绪表情注意方式

研究探讨了孤独症儿童的情绪共情能力及情绪表情注意方式的特点。各选取15名孤独症儿童以及作为对照组的智力障碍儿童和普通儿童各15名, 完成情绪共情实验, 同时使用生物反馈仪记录自主生理反应, 眼动仪记录眼动轨迹。结果发现孤独症儿童对情绪表情的自动模仿及感知能力显著低于智力障碍儿童与普通儿童; 对面孔的总注视时间、总注视点数均显著少于智力障碍儿童、普通儿童; 对眼部、嘴部的注视时间比及注视点数比均显著低于普通儿童; 对高兴和悲伤表情的注意较多而对恐惧则较少。这提示孤独症儿童的情绪共情能力不足、对情绪表情的注意方式异常。     

共情的毕生发展:一个双过程的视角

共情中包含情绪和认知两种加工过程,二者有着不同的发展轨迹和机制。其中情绪共情是一种与生俱来的能力,从婴儿期直到成年期呈现下降趋势,到老年阶段有所上升,呈现出U形发展轨迹。其发展可能是由于镜像神经元储存的共享表征日益丰富和精细。认知共情发展相对较晚,从出生直到成年期呈现上升趋势,在老年阶段逐渐下降,呈现倒U形的发展轨迹。其发展是随着颞顶联合区和前额叶皮层成熟、个体区分自我他人和抑制自我中心能力增强而逐渐发展的。只有分别考察两个成分的发展才能了解共情发展的本质和机制。