The problem: American education the solution: Use behavior analytic technology

In spite of numerous demonstrations that America's youth can be effectively educated with behavior analytic teaching techniques, few of the country's children are benefiting from the technology. In addition scholarly reviews of effective teaching strategies have often omitted reference to behavior analysis. One way to look at this problem is as a two-step operation. First, it is necessary to determine procedures that work; second it is necessary to devise strategies for effective dissemination. The present issue of JOBE (Vol. 1, No. 3, Sept. 1991) contains the recommendations of six outstanding behavioral educators as to how to deal with the dissemination problem. The initial article by Pumroy and McIntire describes the activities of an organization which trains school psychologists and teachers to use behavioral procedures and advocates for the techniques with a number of audiences. Next, Engelmann suggests that the public have more control over school activities and that legal action be taken against irresponsible administrative decisions. Hall advocates for less labor-intensive procedures and the sale of curricular materials based on behavioral principles. Binder proposes that dissemination of the technology become a private endeavor that responds to consumer needs. Rosenfield describes a collaborative model of consultation that increases treatment adherence. Finally, Albers and Greer describe research that isolates a key teacher behavior that results in greater academic proficiency.     

Enhancing Classroom Performance: A Review of Reinforcement Schedules

During the past decade the application of elementary principles of behavior have become a standard in the classroom teacher's repertoire of behavior change strategies. Unfortunately, the application of more advanced principles of behavior derived through basic behavioral research lies as an untapped resource for classroom teachers. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the use of systematic procedures to deliver reinforcers to enhance academic performance. In this paper we provide educators with information on the use of reinforcement schedules in academic settings. Various schedules of reinforcement are presented along with examples of their application in applied settings.     

WHY NO GUIDELINES FOR BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION?

This paper reviews the guidelines for behavioral programs published by the National Association of Retarded Children. The review discusses a number of reasons why guidelines should not be enunciated for behavior modification, e.g., the procedures of behavior modification appear to be no more or less subject to abuse and no more or less in need of ethical regulation than intervention procedures derived from any other set of principles and called by other terms. The review recommends alternative methods for protecting the rights of clients who participate in behavioral programs. Specifically, behavioral clinicians, like other therapists, should be governed by the ethics codes of their professions; also, the ethics of all intervention programs should be evaluated in terms of a number of critical issues.     

The man who listens to behavior: folk wisdom and behavior analysis from a real horse whisperer

The popular novel and movie The Horse Whisperer are based on the work of several real-life horse whisperers, the most famous of whom is Monty Roberts. Over the last 50 years, Roberts has developed a technique for training horses that is both more effective and less aversive than traditional training techniques. An analysis of Roberts' methods (as described in his book, The Man Who Listens to Horses) indicates a deep understanding of behavioral principles including positive reinforcement, timeout, species-specific defense reactions, “learned helplessness,” and the behavioral analysis of language. Roberts developed his theory and techniques on the basis of personal experience and folk wisdom, and not as the result of formal training in behavior analysis. Behavior analysts can clearly learn from such insightful yet “behaviorally incorrect” practitioners, just as such practitioners can benefit from the objective science of behavior analysts.     

Understanding Manual-Based Behavior Therapy: Some Theoretical Foundations of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy

ABSTRACT

Manualized therapy has been criticized as being incompatible with behavior therapy. However, the majority of empirically supported, manual-based therapies utilize basic behavioral principles, such as positive reinforcement, to achieve positive change in the target behavior. Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), for example, is a manualized treatment that makes extensive use of the empirically-derived behavioral principles of this paradigm. Understanding how and why these fundamental principles operate is essential when attempting to tailor the program ideographically to meet clients' specific needs. The purpose of this article is to provide a model of understanding and evaluating manualized treatments by beginning with a review of the theory and data-driven principles upon which PCIT is based. As a point of illustration, several of the behavioral principles embedded in PCIT, such as reinforcement, punishment, and stimulus control, are highlighted, and clinically relevant examples are presented.     

Behavioral Gerontology: State of the Science

Baer, Wolf and Risley's (1968) dimensions of applied behavior analysis are used as an organizing framework to review and discuss current research on the application of behavioral principles to the solution of social problems faced by older adults. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Brief Behavioral Knowledge Questionnaire: Measuring Change in Caregiver's Knowledge Following Participation in a Brief Behavioral Training

Behavioral caregiver training programs are extensively used interventions, based on empirical research and applied concepts of behavior. As these interventions become more widespread in use across settings for various populations, the availability of efficient methods to evaluate program effectiveness is crucial. Currently, there is a lack of widely used and psychometrically sound measurement tools to assess change in caregivers' knowledge of behavioral principles following participation in such training. In the current study, we assessed change in caregivers' knowledge of behavioral principles following participation in a caregiver training based on the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis. Twenty caregivers participated in the evaluation, which included pre‐ and post‐Brief Behavioral Knowledge Questionnaire (BBKQ) completed before and after participation in a brief behavioral training (BBT). The measurement was found to have good internal consistency. Results also show that following participation in the BBT, caregivers' initial knowledge of behavioral principles increased significantly. The results suggest that the BBKQ may be a useful tool in detecting changes in caregiver's knowledge of behavior principles following BBT. Limitation and future directions are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

领导者对员工主动行为的心理与行为反应

员工主动行为因有利于个人和组织的长远发展而受到学界和业界的广泛关注。以往的研究主要关注主动行为对员工本人的人际内影响,而较少考虑对领导者的人际间影响;同时,考虑到员工在领导过程中扮演的重要角色,对员工的主动行为如何影响领导的心理与行为反应做理论性整理将极大丰富对员工主动行为的认识。学界基于归因理论、内隐追随理论、自我-他人评价一致性理论等对上述自下而上的影响过程进行了初步探索,发现领导者对员工主动行为的态度评价和行为反应受到多重边界条件的影响。未来研究可具体化员工主动行为所诱发的领导者心理与行为反应,探索员工主动行为与领导方式的循环关系,以及深挖主动行为与绩效评价之间的内在机理。     

Extinction memory in the crab Chasmagnathus: recovery protocols and effects of multi-trial extinction training

A decline in the frequency or intensity of a conditioned behavior following the withdrawal of the reinforcement is called experimental extinction. However, the experimental manipulation necessary to trigger memory reconsolidation or extinction is to expose the animal to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of reinforcement. Recovery protocols were used to reveal which of these two processes was developed. By using the crab contextual memory model (a visual danger stimulus associated with the training context), we investigated the dynamics of extinction memory in Chasmagnathus. Here, we reveal the presence of three recovery protocols that restore the original memory: the old memory comes back 4 days after the extinction training, or when a weak training is administered later, or once the VDS is presented in a novel context 24 h after the extinction session. Another objective was to evaluate whether the administration of multi-trial extinction training could trigger an extinction memory in Chasmagnathus. The results evince that the extinction memory appears only when the total re-exposure time is around 90 min independently of the number of trials employed to accumulate it. Thus, it is feasible that the mechanisms described for the case of the extinction memory acquired through a single training trial are valid for multi-trial extinction protocols. Finally, these results are in agreement with those reports obtained with models phylogenetically far apart from the crab. Behind this attempt is the idea that in the domain of studies on memory, some principles of behavior organization and basic mechanisms have universal validity.     

The Cubberley Conference and the Evolution of Observational Learning Strategies

The 1965 Cubberley Conference at Stanford University was an important milestone for the counseling profession. For many, this conference provided the impetus for the development of an empirical model for counseling. More specifically, it was the first major attempt to propose the application of behavioral principles to the counseling process. It also represents the beginning of a period from which considerable research and a variety of innovative counseling interventions emanated. This article discusses the evolution of one of these strategies—social modeling—and how this strategy fostered the development and sophistication of more specific observational learning techniques, such as self-observation and self-modeling.     

The School Bully: Assessing the Problem, Developing Interventions, and Future Research Directions

A growing concern exists among educators regarding the prevalence and impact of bullying behavior in the public schools. This behavior has serious repercussions for school climate and school safety in general. In addition, strong indicators suggest bullying behavior appears to be a precursor for community violence. Studies indicate that educators are not fully aware of the prevalence or the seriousness of bullying behavior in schools. A need exists to assess systematically the extent to which bullying behavior may be present in a given school. The critical features of several bullying assessment instruments were examined. In response to the growing concern regarding bullying, a large number of programs designed to address bullying are emerging. However, it is recommended that before selecting a program three criteria should be considered: the program (a) is supported by research; (b) is based on sound behavioral principles; and (c) emphasizes teaching prosocial behavior to replace bullying behavior.     

The triad of science foundations, instructional technology, and organizational structure

Over the centuries and across all societies educational achievement does not improve. The attempt to improve the instructional process has concentrated on instructional technology. But these attempts have overlooked the importance of two other factors: the science that should underlie the instructional technologies and the organization that must operate those technologies. A considerable step forward in handling the problems of instructional effectiveness has been the derivation of instructional technologies based on Skinnerian science. But the instructional technologies based on Skinner's analysis of behavior are promoted as if they were to operate in an organizational vacuum. The division of labor, and its necessary coordination and control, is taken for granted. But in any large scale enterprise, the organization of the division of labor must fit the technology through which that enterprise achieves its mission. Educational technology must tie directly to a pertinent science and to a proper organizational structure. To teach effectively requires an overhaul along three lines: 1) a relevant science that reflects and encapsulates an accurate understanding of behavior; 2) a contingency-based technology of instruction that directly derives its practices upon proper scientific principles; and 3) a suitable organization based on teaching teams that operate the new instructional technology.     

Developing a social functional account of laughter

Laughter is ubiquitous, universal, and variable. This article develops a social functional account to explain the many physical forms laughter takes and the many social contexts in which it occurs. In contrast to previous perspectives that emphasize the internal state of the producer or the eliciting context, the current social functional account distinguishes laughter according to the behavioral intentions it conveys and the behavioral response it elicits in the recipient. The general function of human and nonhuman laughter is to signal harmless intentions, and within this function, we identify 3 distinct social tasks accomplished by human laughter. We propose that the first social function of laughter, both evolutionarily and developmentally, is to reward the behavior of others and reinforce the ongoing interaction. The second task accomplished by laughter is the easing of social tension and signaling of affiliation and nonthreat. A third form of laughter nonconfrontationally enforces social norms, negotiates status, and corrects undesirable behavior in others by conveying dominance or superiority. We propose that the acoustic modulations that communicate these social intentions follow principles common to human and nonhuman vocal signaling.     

Radical Behaviorism,Stimulus Equivalence,and Human Cognition

The current paper represents an attempt to clarify the nature of the radical behaviorist’s perspective on human cognition. This attempt will involve an examination of recent behavioral research into the relationship between stimulus equivalence phenomena and symbolic behavior, and language more generally. This form of behavior analysis is offered as an alternative to, but not a replacement for, other methodological and conceptual approaches to psychology.

     

MOMENTUM AND EXTINCTION EFFECTS ON SELF-INJURIOUS ESCAPE BEHAVIOR AND NONCOMPLIANCE

Previous research on applications of behavioral momentum has indicated that a high-probability (high-p) instructional sequence, in which a series of instructions for which there is a high probability of compliance is presented immediately before an instruction for which there is a low probability of compliance, is an effective method for increasing compliance. It is not dear, however, whether the procedure is effective when individuals actively attempt to escape from the instructional situation. In this study, we examined the effects of the high-p sequence, when implemented first alone and then later with an extinction component, as treatment for the self-injurious escape behavior of 2 individuals. Results showed that when the instructional sequence was implemented without extinction, rates of self-injury increased and percentage of compliance decreased. In addition, the percentage of trials occasioning escape behavior increased for both high- and low-probability instructions. When an extinction component was added to the high-p sequence, rates of self-injury and the percentage of trials containing self-injury decreased, and compliance increased. These findings suggest that extinction may be an important component of treatment when escape behavior such as self-injury accompanies noncompliance in instructional contexts and competes with compliant behavior.     

Behavioral fluency and mathematics intervention research: A review of the last 20 years

Behavioral fluency refers to the relationship between the achievement of performance standards, or frequency ranges of behavior, and critical learning outcomes. Over the past 20 years, Precision Teaching and related research have contributed a number of studies examining behavioral fluency. The subsequent review investigates the empirical evidence from mathematics intervention research. Several studies suggest numerical markers that best support behavioral fluency. Results indicate that fluency interventions set to performance standards increased behavioral fluency and associated critical learning outcomes; however, more research is warranted to operationalize and standardize each outcome to the principles of behavior and numerical markers that constitute behavioral fluency.     

Explanations of social facilitation: A review

A review is made of the behavioral effects of the presence of a conspecific. A large number of behavior changes are discussed, in three groups. First, there are effects of the presence of others on the level of arousal or alertness; under predictable conditions the presence of a conspecific will increase arousal level. Second, there are effects on attentional processes. For a variety of reasons, conspecifics require attending. Third, the presence of others can induce a social valuation on particular behaviors, so that they become positively or negatively valued. For each of these three groups, a number of possible mechanisms are elaborated, and a number of mediating variables are discussed. Further, an attempt is made to link each of these behavioral effects to human and nonhuman social relations, to show how they function in social organization. Even the “minimal” social setting, one person with another, can have effects ranging from physiological changes to inducing the “presence” of the social power structures or social organization of a social group. Lastly, future directions for research in this area are suggested, and problems with the present research are examined. Foremost here is the use of implied audiences, mirrors, and real audiences, as manipulations of social conditions. It is argued that these will result in different effects, and some evidence for this is reviewed.     

Applied behavior analysis and the zoo: Forthman and Ogden (1992) thirty years later

The field of applied behavior analysis has been directly involved in both research and applications of behavioral principles to improve the lives of captive zoo animals. Thirty years ago, Forthman and Ogden (1992) wrote one of the first papers documenting some of these efforts. Since that time, considerable work has been done using behavioral principles and procedures to guide zoo welfare efforts. The current paper reexamines and updates Forthman and Ogden's original points, with attention to the 5 categories they detailed: (a) promotion of species-typical behavior, (b) reintroduction and repatriation of endangered species, (c) animal handling, (d) pest control, and (e) animal performances. In addition, we outline 3 current and future directions for behavior analytic endeavors: (a) experimental analyses of behavior and the zoo, (b) applied behavior analysis and the zoo, and (c) single-case designs and the zoo. The goal is to provide a framework that can guide future behavioral research in zoos, as well as create applications based on these empirical evaluations.     

IN PURSUIT OF GENERAL BEHAVIORAL RELATIONS

Efforts to develop behavioral technologies from advances in basic research assume that results from studies with nonhuman subjects can, in some instances, be applied to human behavior. The behavioral principles likely to be most useful for application are those that represent robust general behavioral relations. Basic and applied research on behavioral momentum suggests that there is a general behavioral relation between the persistence of behavior and the rate of reinforcement obtained in a given situation. Understanding the factors that affect behavioral persistence may have important implications for applied behavior analysts that justify studies aimed at establishing the generality and limits of the functional relation between reinforcement rate and behavioral persistence. Strategies for establishing the generality of behavioral relations are reviewed, followed by a brief summary of the evidence for the generality of behavioral momentum.