Thoughts on the emergence of the sense of self, with particular emphasis on the body self

In trying to trace the emergence of the sense of self during the first fifteen months of life--in particular the formation of the bodily self--we used, on the one hand, severe dissociations of the integral parts of the body self such as occurs in psychosis, in the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, and in phantom-limb disturbances and, on the other hand, data from our normative study of the separation-individuation process as inferred from mother-infant interaction in general and the infant's behavior in front of the mirror in particular. The infant's behavior in front of the mirror strongly suggests that feelings about himself only gradually become integrated with perceptual and cognitive awareness of himself. All the data, furthermore, indicate that it is not possible to study the development of the self separate from the development of the object. All inferences contained in our paper about the emergence of the sense of self were made from the point of view of the central organizing, integrating, and synthesizing institution of the mind, that is, the ego. We agree with other authors that the developing self has both experiential and structural aspects. We titled our paper "Thoughts on the Emergence of the Sense of Self" to indicate that this paper is meant to be an initial and quite tentative communication about the vast and elusive area of personality development concerning the emergence of our bodily self, and thus of the core of our personal identity.     

On concreteness

Subtypes of concreteness (organic, topographical, semiotic, and interactional) are described in this paper. These are considered within the context of overall development during the first two and a half years of life and cognitive growth is systematically linked to the maturation of object relations. Factors which contribute to concreteness are the nature of the cognitive strategies available for thinking, the growth of an internal space in which an independently functioning mind is located, and the gradual separation of the self and nonself. Finally, some examples of concreteness in clinical practice are offered particularly as these relate to the nature of projective identification.     

AMPA receptor endocytosis in rat perirhinal cortex underlies retrieval of object memory

Mechanisms consistent with long-term depression in the perirhinal cortex (PRh) play a fundamental role in object recognition memory; however, whether AMPA receptor endocytosis is involved in distinct phases of recognition memory is not known. To address this question, we used local PRh infusions of the cell membrane-permeable Tat-GluA2(3Y) interference peptide or a scrambled control to block the endocytosis of AMPA receptors during the encoding, consolidation, or retrieval phase of object recognition memory. Tat-GluA2(3Y) infusion before the encoding and consolidation phases did not alter recognition memory. In contrast, Tat-GluA2(3Y) infusion prior to the retrieval phase disrupted object recognition memory. The present results indicate a distinct role for AMPA receptor endocytosis in the retrieval of visual recognition memory.     

Die Vertreibung aus der Hölle

Developmental conditions that give rise to a pathological bond are described. Such pathological accommodations are therapeutically difficult to handle and seem to be irresolvable. Insights from developmental psychology studies of the earliest phases of mental development indicate that insufficient and non-supporting relational experiences during the critical period of primary dependence are of crucial impact. A sufficiently constant affect attunement is considered as the necessary basis for a “mental umbilical cord” by which the ability to mentalize and a mature theory of mind and hence a stable self can develop. Corresponding deficits yield cumulative mini-traumata, which affect, as internalized pathogenic relational experiences, all subsequent relations. The inner experiences that result from pathogenic introjects are paradigmatically illustrated by two poems of Rilke and Baudelaire. Intrapsychic and interpsychic consequences of primary and secondary traumatization and its inherent massive internal violence are described exemplified by a fairy tale of Hans Christian Andersen. The establishment of an internalized benevolent object, i.e. development of a healthy psychic structure, is a necessary precondition for a working-through of destructive introjects. In this process it is of primordial importance that the analyst becomes aware of and validates the patient’s emerging feelings and vitality affects and shares the patient’s way of experience. In the course of a microanalytic process of attunement-guided interactions split-off and unsymbolized overwhelming affects can be integrated, thereby establishing a basis for self-awareness and self-reflection.     

Affect at the different phases of cognitive behavioral therapy: An evaluation of psychotherapy provided by candidates

The purpose of this study was to investigate the affect, as measured by “Positive and Negative Affect Schedule” (PANAS), its influence on psychopathology, and to examine the effect of changing affect during cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). The study was carried out at the psychotherapy training center, Karlstad University. The hypothesis was whether clients with mental disorders have a self‐destructive affective personality (low PA and high NA) and healthy individuals have a self‐actualizing personality (high PA and low NA). Thirty‐two healthy participants and 44 clients participated in the study. The clients were asked to fill in the PANAS once throughout CBT, either during evaluation, treatment or finishing phase, accordingly there were three different groups at different therapy phases. The healthy subjects were also asked to fill in the self‐report scale once. The comparison of the three phases of therapy and the four affective personality types showed a significant difference between the phases of therapy and the four affective personality types: totally 16 (of 22) and eight (of nine) clients measured at the evaluation and treatment phases, respectively, had a self‐destructive personality. However, at the end of therapy five (of 13) clients had a self‐actualizing personality characteristics, while only three of them were self‐destructive. Furthermore, the results indicate that affective personality does not seem to be a basic and stable personality trait, which could be altered by therapy. The affections measured by PANAS may be influenced by psychopathology and CBT, when conducted by candidate therapists it can be effective in terms of affect changes.     

3-5岁儿童对物体认知及对他人认知过程的研究

本文探讨了3-5岁儿童对物体的认知及对他人的认知过程.结果表明儿童通过视觉认知外界物体时,物体的外观特性(形状与颜色)起着主要的作用;在认知过程中,通过触觉及视觉对物体认知的信息产生矛盾时,儿童对物体的真实性往往产生怀疑及犹疑不决,影响对物体的真实性认知.儿童对他人认知行为认知的发展水平,取决于儿童对物体认知结构的复杂性.3-5岁儿童对物体认知能力随年龄的增长而提高.     

Specificity of reference patterns in depressive thinking: agency and object roles in self-representation

This study investigated A. T. Beck's (1970) negative cognitive triad as a model of depressive thinking. A mixed clinical sample (N = 126) completed the Sentence Completion Test for Depression (SCD) and self-report measures of depression and anxiety. Two reference patterns were tested: agency roles, people who are the source of thoughts, feelings, and actions (self and others); and object roles, points of reference location (self, other, world, future, and past). Cognitive effects were highly specific to depression. With self in agent role, significant correlations were observed with negative self, world, and future references but not with other people or the past. With others in agent role, only negative self references were correlated with depression (e.g., "Some people would not ... put me out if I was on fire"), suggesting an interpersonal extension to the negative cognitive triad.     

睡眠剥夺影响恐惧情绪加工的认知神经机制

睡眠剥夺与恐惧情绪加工的各个过程息息相关。睡眠剥夺损害了恐惧的习得过程, 而且影响着杏仁核、内侧前额叶的活动及它们之间的功能连接; 睡眠剥夺削弱了恐惧记忆的巩固和再巩固过程, 不仅破坏了恐惧记忆再巩固过程相关蛋白质和酶的合成, 同时也影响着海马、杏仁核、内侧前额叶的活动以及它们之间的功能连接; 睡眠剥夺损害了恐惧的消退, 同时也改变了海马、杏仁核等相关脑区的活动模式。未来的研究应从睡眠剥夺影响恐惧情绪加工的认知神经机制、睡眠剥夺与恐惧情绪相关障碍的关系等角度展开, 力图深入理解睡眠剥夺影响恐惧情绪加工的认知神经机制。     

Contributions of cognitive science to the Rorschach Technique: cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the response process

This article presents an understanding of the Rorschach Technique in terms of emergent models from cognitive science. We propose a linkage between cognitive psychology and neuropsychology in understanding the operations that underlie the Rorschach response process. Contemporary information processing models are described. The Rorschach Technique is conceived of as a complex process involving all areas of the cerebral hemispheres, encompassing various aspects of visual attention and perception, object recognition, associative memory, language production, and executive functioning. Exner's model of the response process is delineated, including both Association and Inquiry phases, in terms of requisite underlying neuropsychological abilities and anatomical substrates. The question of the Rorschach Technique's status, utility, and potential as a neuropsychological assessment, tool is discussed. Understanding the Rorschach in terms of contemporary cognitive psychological and neuropsychological models heightens appreciation of the technique's complexity and provides a heuristic and conceptual foundation for empirical research.     

The consolidation/transition model in moral reasoning development

The consolidation/transition model conceptualizes development as entailing a cyclical pattern of alternating consolidation and transition phases and posits that stage advance is predicted by a specific distribution of reasoning across stages indicative of disequilibrium (more reasoning above than below the mode, with a high degree of mixture). The validity of this model was examined in the context of moral reasoning development with the use of standard statistical techniques as well as Bayesian techniques that can better account for classification error. In this longitudinal study. 64 children and adolescents participated in 5 annual administrations of the Moral Judgment Interview. The distribution of their reasoning across stages was used to predict subsequent development. The results support the hypotheses regarding cyclical patterns of change and predictors of stage transition and demonstrate the utility of Bayesian techniques for evaluating developmental change.     

从进化论视角看自我面孔识别加工

进化心理学家推测,自我认知是一组沿着不同进化历程发展起来的认知加工能力。史前人类的早期,自我面孔识别依赖于延展我的加工。由于我们对自我认知、自我意识的神经机制还知之不多,而它们对于理解人类行为复杂性又极其重要。自我面孔作为个体最显著的自我标识,可以作为延展我、私密我、概念我加工的独特刺激,对于揭示自我认知加工的机制具有重要作用。     

I like it, because I like myself: Associative self-anchoring and post-decisional change of implicit evaluations

Research in the cognitive dissonance tradition has shown that choosing between two equally attractive alternatives leads to more favorable evaluations of chosen as compared to rejected alternatives (spreading-of-alternatives effect). The present research tested associative self-anchoring as an alternative mechanism for post-decisional changes of implicit evaluations. Specifically, we argue that choosing an object results in the creation of an association between the chosen object and the self. By virtue of this association, implicit evaluations of the self tend to transfer to the chosen object, such that implicit evaluations of the chosen object depend on implicit evaluations of the self. Importantly, this mechanism can lead to ownership-related changes in implicit evaluations even in the absence of cognitive dissonance. Results from four experiments provide converging evidence for these assumptions. Implications for a variety of phenomena are discussed, including cognitive dissonance, the mere ownership effect, the endowment effect, and ingroup favoritism.     

Oedipus complex and development of self

The emergence of oedipal object relations is a crucial stage in the development toward individuated adult mentation, distinguished from early stages of psychic life which are transindividual (as in Kohut's "selfobject transference"). The latter continue to function as deep layers of individual psychic life; but the development of oedipal/postoedipal object relations, and advanced psychic structure and functioning based on it, represents a norm in psychoanalytic psychology and therapy. The poet John Keats's ideas about the formation of the individual "soul" (identity as an individual) by the intervention of "circumstances" are cited to illustrate this aspect of the oedipus complex.     

Forgiveness,Cognitive Restructuring and Object Transformation

Forgiveness is described as a process that includes (1) re-constructing cognitions about the offender and self and (2) re-imaging the offender and re-experiencing self and violator. Object relations theory can help to show that the violated individual’s conflict is within as the person struggles inwardly with hostile images (object-representations) during the process of forgiveness. Cognitive restructuring points to the crucial importance of choice to help initiate the forgiveness process. Within the context of forgiveness as a therapeutic process, cognitive restructuring and object transformation can promote the client’s psychological health and well-being. It is proposed that forgiveness is a spiritual as well as a psychological process, which includes grace-filled choices and behavior. Patrick F. Cioni's academic background includes a Master’s of Arts in Psychology with a major in Personality from New School University, New York, N.Y. Previously, he obtained a Master of Science in Counseling from the University of Scranton, Scranton, PA. He began private practice of counseling and psychotherapy in September 1983 following work in the psychology department of a maximum security mental hospital as psychotherapist and treatment team coordinator. Present practice includes individual and marital therapy. He developed a treatment program for use with married couples in conjunction with the Prepare/Enrich inventory. The author wishes to thank Cheryl L. Sancafon, M.D., who encouraged his interest in object relations, Jared P. Pingleton, Psy.D., John C. Norcross, Ph.D., other reviewers and, most essentially, the Spirit of God. Correspondence to Patrick F. Cioni, Private Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 138 South Cameron Avenue, Scranton, PA, 18504, USA; e-mail: patrickcioni@netzero.net     

Phases of Group Development: A View from Self Psychology

This paper delineates four phases of group development from the standpoint of self psychological theory. The author contends that a stable sense of groupself develops over time and that the groupself has a distinct number of phases, each of which has a therapeutic impact on members. The individual patient's selfobject experiences include a relationship to the group-as-a-whole, a transference state of which the leader is but one part. Thus, rather than dilute the transference, group analysis offers a unique opportunity to help the individual experience him or herself within a selfobject matrix that extends beyond the dyad. Group analysis leads to a strengthening of the self, especially as it enables the self to experience itself as part of a group identity, which provides alter-ego selfobject experiences, as well as a sense of acceptance within a larger community. This paper attempts to clarify how different selfobject experiences may be highlighted within the groupself at different stages of group development.     

Kafka,paranoic doubles and the brain: hypnagogic vs. hyper-reflexive models of disrupted self in neuropsychiatric disorders and anomalous conscious states

Kafka's writings are frequently interpreted as representing the historical period of modernism in which he was writing. Little attention has been paid, however, to the possibility that his writings may reflect neural mechanisms in the processing of self during hypnagogic (i.e., between waking and sleep) states. Kafka suffered from dream-like, hypnagogic hallucinations during a sleep-deprived state while writing. This paper discusses reasons (phenomenological and neurobiological) why the self projects an imaginary double (autoscopy) in its spontaneous hallucinations and how Kafka's writings help to elucidate the underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms. I further discuss how the proposed mechanisms may be relevant to understanding paranoid delusions in schizophrenia. Literature documents and records cognitive and neural processes of self with an intimacy that may be otherwise unavailable to neuroscience. To elucidate this approach, I contrast it with the apparently popularizing view that the symptoms of schizophrenia result from what has been called an operative (i.e., pre-reflective) hyper-reflexivity. The latter approach claims that pre-reflective self-awareness (diminished in schizophrenia) pervades all conscious experience (however, in a manner that remains unverifiable for both phenomenological and experimental methods). This contribution argues the opposite: the "self" informs our hypnagogic imagery precisely to the extent that we are not self-aware.