Similar processing of real- and subjective-contour Poggendorff figures by men and women

Measures of illusion magnitude for a real-contour and two subjective-contour Poggendorff figures were obtained from 42 men and 42 women. Although magnitudes of illusion differed as a function of figure type, male-female differences in magnitude of illusion did not vary across figures or judgment orders. Also, correlations among the illusions observed for three types of figures did not differ for men and women. These data are consistent with the view that real- and subjective-contour Poggendorff figures evoke similar processing strategies and that sex differences, when observed, are probably the result of differences in cognitive-judgmental strategy rather than differences in the optical and neural properties of the visual system.     

Investigating the illusion of control in mildly depressed and nondepressed individuals during video-poker play

Cognitive fallacies, such as the illusion of control, and psychological disorders, such as depression, may perpetuate gambling and thus contribute to problem gambling (e.g., R. Ladouceur, C. Sylvan, C. Boutin, & C. Doucet, 2002). Gender differences may exist across these variables (e.g., N. M. Petry, 2005). The authors investigated these possibilities by recruiting mildly depressed and nondepressed individuals to play jacks or better, 5-card draw, video poker. Across three poker sessions, participants were given (a) no choice of which cards to play, (b) information on the best cards to play but control over which cards were played, or (c) no information and complete control over which cards were played. The total amount of money gambled increased as control over the game decreased, but this result correlated with an increase in the rate of play. Depressed and nondepressed participants did not differ in how they gambled, but men gambled significantly more and sometimes made more mistakes during play than did women. These results question the role of the illusion of control and depression in perpetuating gambling. They also suggest that providing players information about which cards to play may indirectly promote gambling and provide insight as to why men are more prone to suffer from gambling problems than are women.     

Response confidence and the Ponzo illusion.

The number of longer line judgments and the ratings of confidence in these judgements were significantly higher when the comparison line was located near the apex of the Ponzo wedge but only confidence ratings were affected by the orientation of the wedge (ns = 24 men, 24 women). Differences between the two measures suggest that perceptual and nonperceptual processes may be involved in the illusion.     

Cognitive biases in aggressive drivers: Does illusion of control drive us off the road?

Anger has been shown to be a motivating factor in aggression and it is widely accepted that driving anger may lead to aggressive driving. However, the link between anger and aggressive driving is likely to be mediated by drivers’ pre-existing cognitive biases and the subsequent situational evaluations made. This study investigated the extent to which optimism bias, illusion of control beliefs and driver anger predict self-reported hostile driving behaviours. A total of 220 licensed drivers (106 men; 114 women) completed a self-report questionnaire measuring trait driving anger, optimism bias, illusion of control and driving behaviour. Structural Equation Modelling showed that trait driving anger and illusion of control beliefs account for 37% of the variance in hostile driving behaviour scores. Optimism biases were unrelated to hostile driving behaviours. Thus, driving anger propensities and feelings of control over the situation, but not a general tendency to underestimate the likelihood of adverse outcomes, predict aggressive driving.     

Zollner错觉的阈限测定

该研究选取大学生为被试,采用最小变化法,分别测量了干扰线对数、干扰线与主线之间的间隔、主线之间的间隔等三个变量导致Z?llner错觉产生的绝对阈限。每个变量中主线与水平面的夹角分为45°和90°两种条件。结果发现,若要产生Z?llner错觉：1）干扰线对数的阈限分别为5对、7对;2）干扰线与主线之间的间隔阈限分别为6.58像素、4.48像素,3）干扰线之间的间隔阈限分别为124.44像素、131.73像素。此外还发现：4）在Z?llner错觉形成的影响因素中,从大到小依次是：干扰线对数、主线之间的间隔、干扰线与主线之间的间隔;5）45°情况下比90°情况下更容易产生错觉;6）在Z?llner错觉知觉中,期望误差严重。     

Lack of sex differences with the Baldwin illusion

Responses of college students (16 men and 16 women) to the Baldwin illusion showed a significant effect for size of square but not for sex. Findings are consistent with those reported previously by Porac, Coren, Girgus, and Verde for adults and for the oldest group of children tested by Pressey and Wilson.     

Exercise behavior and gender-related differences in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms

ObjectivesExercise has been proposed as a potential treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the relationship between exercise, gender, and PTSD symptoms is unknown.DesignThis study examined the cross-sectional relationship among these variables in a national sample of 165 men and women who screened positive for PTSD.MethodParticipants completed an online survey consisting of the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire and the PTSD Checklist-Civilian.ResultsActive participants had significantly lower PTSD symptoms than insufficiently active participants. Significant interactions between gender and exercise for PTSD symptoms were found, such that active men had significantly lower PTSD symptoms than active women, and insufficiently active men and women. Additionally, strenuously active men reported significantly lower hyperarousal symptoms than strenuously active women, and insufficiently active men and women.ConclusionFindings suggest that the relationship between PTSD and exercise may differ for specific sub-populations of individuals with PTSD, such as men and women.     

Work and family precursors of burnout in teachers: Sex differences

This paper examines factors contributing to burnout in women and men teachers. Results indicated that men were significantly higher than women on one of the Maslach burnout subscales—depersonalization. Additional results showed that women experienced significantly more depression, headaches, and role conflict than their male counterparts. Multiple regression results indicated that 47% of the variation in burnout was accounted for by a model of burnout that included role conflict, marital satisfaction, work sources of stress, and social support in women. But in men, the main contributor to burnout was sources of stress including doubts about competence and problems with students. The results are discussed from a gender role perspective that takes account of the differential implications of gender roles for women and men.This research was supported by grants from York University including the Faculties of Arts and Administrative Studies. We would like to thank Jacob Wolpin for assitance in the data analyses.     

Women Who Objectify Other Women: The Vicious Circle of Objectification?

This study was designed to test the extent to which women who self-objectify also objectify other women. One hundred thirty-two university students and their friends (64 women and 68 men) completed three questionnaires: (1) Noll and Fredrickson’s (1998) Self-Objectification Questionnaire, (2) a modified version of that questionnaire that measured individuals’ objectification of others, and (3) Slade, Dewey, Newton, and Brodie’s (1990) Body Cathexis scale. Women were more likely than men to self-objectify. Self-objectification was negatively related to body satisfaction for women but not for men. Both women and men objectified women more than they objectified men, although women’s objectification of other women was not significantly different than their objectification of men. Men objectified women more than women did, and women objectified men more than men did. Women were more likely to objectify other women than to objectify themselves. Higher self-objectification among both women and men was related to increased objectification of other women and men, but the relationships were stronger for women. Results indicate that women also objectify women, although not to the degree exhibited by men.     

Effects of visual-motor illusions with different visual stimuli on the sit-to-stand of people with hemiplegia following stroke: A randomized crossover controlled trial

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to determine the effects of different visual stimuli during visual-motor illusion on sit-to-stand in people with hemiplegia following stroke.MethodsThis was a randomized crossover controlled trial. Twenty people with hemiplegia following stroke were randomly divided into groups. The video images used for visual-motor illusion were ankle dorsiflexion without resistance (standard visual-motor illusion [standard illusion]) and maximum effort dorsiflexion with resistance (power visual-motor illusion [power illusion]). People with hemiplegia following stroke underwent both illusion interventions with a 1-week washout period in between; group A started with the standard illusion intervention and group B started with the power illusion intervention. Outcomes included the sit-to-stand duration, maximum weight-bearing value, trunk movement during sit-to-stand, ankle joint movement during sit-to-stand, and active ankle dorsiflexion movement on the paralyzed side.ResultsThe angular velocity of the trunk and ankle joints increased significantly during sit-to-stand, and sit-to-stand duration decreased significantly in response only to power illusion. In addition, the change in angular velocity of active ankle dorsiflexion was significantly greater in response to power illusion than was the change in response to standard illusion.ConclusionPower illusion induces a greater improvement in paralyzed ankle dorsiflexion function than standard illusion, resulting in shorter sit-to-stand duration.     

An examination of the love-is-blind bias among gay men and lesbians

The present study examined evidence of the ‘love-is-blind bias’ (a tendency to perceive romantic partners as more attractive than the self) among gay men and lesbians. In total, 93 gay men and 140 lesbians provided self- and partner-ratings of physical attractiveness for a range of body components. Results of a series of t-tests showed that both gay men and lesbians rated their partners as significantly more attractive than themselves on all but one item, respectively. Effect sizes for these differences were moderate to large. Further analyses showed that lesbians provided higher self- and partner-ratings than gay men on some items, although effect sizes for these differences were small. Overall, these results provide evidence for the existence of a robust positive illusion in self–partner perceptions.     

The influence of age, sex, and specialized training on the vertical-horizontal illusion

With the aim of investigating the perceptual processes responsible for perceptual illusions, we have studied the influence of age, sex and specialized training on two forms of the vertical-horizontal illusion. In Figure A, the vertical is a short distance away from the horizontal; in Figure B, the vertical meets the horizontal segment at its mid-point. Both figures were presented in brief (0-2 second) and long (I-o second) tachistoscopic exposure, and in unlimited exposure.

When time is unlimited. Illusion A increases up to 9-10 years and then remains constant and Illusion B decreases as a function of age and chiefly as a function of the degree of scientific training. The illusions are stronger in tachistoscopic perception than under conditions of umlimited exposure. Both illusions also increase in tachistoscopic perception with age except for science students. Under condition of unlimited time, women have stronger illusions than men. This difference does not occur in tachistoscopic perception.

These results may be interpreted in terms of the interaction of three processes: interaction among the elements of a figure (field effects); perceptual activity which makes possible the passing from syncretism or multiplicity to organized perception; and the activity of measuring the elements relatively to each other. This latter activity develops with cultural level and especially with scientific training. It is more effective with men than with women, due, it is suggested, to the spatial factor being higher in men.     

Digit Symbol Substitution test performance: sex differences in a Hebrew-readers' health population

The Digit Symbol Substitution test is simple to administer and sensitive to individual differences related to cognitive performance. The present study evaluated sex-related differences in performance by a Hebrew reading sample. The test was administered to 275 men and 252 women (age range: 20-44 years). Hebrew women significantly scored higher than the men. Means which increased during four consecutive 30-sec. time periods of performance, was significantly greater for the women than the men. This finding indicates women were more effective on this pair-associated learning task than men.     

GROUP GENDER COMPOSITION EFFECTS ON JUDGMENTS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

This article examines the effects of participant gender, researcher gender, and group gender composition (ratio of women to men) on individual judgments about an ambiguous, hypothetical, sexual harassment grievance. The participants (116 men and 113 women) served on five-person mock hearing boards. A main effect for participant gender was found ( p <.01), with significantly more women (58.4%) making affirmative sexual harassment judgments than men (35.3%). A significant three-way interaction ( p <.01) revealed that, when led by male researchers, men in groups where they were the numerical minority (3 women/2 men) made significantly lower ratings, indicating less belief that sexual harassment had occurred ( M = 2.83), than those men in groups where they were in the majority (2 women/3 men, M = 4.87; 4 men/1 woman, M = 4.88). Ingroup and outgroup behavior observed by Rogers, Hennigan, Bowman, and Miller (1984) is proposed as a possible explanation for these results.     

Interpersonal Transactions and Responses to Cold Pressor Pain among Australian Women and Men

This study was designed to assess how interpersonal transactions affect responses to painful stimulation among Australian women and men. Participants were 69 women and 49 men, randomly assigned to a No Transaction (NT) condition (coping alone) or one of three experimenter-initiated transactions (Distraction, Pain-Monitoring, Re-interpretation). Significant sex × transaction interactions for pain tolerance and reported pain revealed that pain responses of men did not differ as a function of transaction. However, women who coped alone had significantly less tolerance and more pain than men and women in other groups. In contrast, women engaged in re-interpretation transactions fared better on measures of pain perception than women engaged in distraction transactions, and they reported significantly less catastrophizing than did men in the re-interpretation condition. Together, findings replicate and extend recent evidence that suggests that women’s responses to noxious stimuli vary considerably as a result of interpersonal context.     

Bragging About One's School Grades: Gender Stereotyping and Students' Perception of Their Abilities in Science,Mathematics, and Language

Three studies examined stereotypes about the abilities of women and men and their implications for self-evaluation. All the three studies suggest that women are generally perceived as better than men in language and that men are generally perceived as better than women in science and math. Furthermore, Study 1 reveals that female university students in psychology who believe that men are better than women in science feel significantly less able in science, have lower self-esteem, and report lower school average than students who do not believe that men are better than women in science. Study 2 shows that female high school students in a language career track rate their own ability in science less highly and report lower school grades in math when gender stereotypes are salient than when they are not. Study 3 shows that male university students in science tend to rate their own ability in language less highly and report significantly lower school grades in language when gender stereotypes are activated prior to their self-evaluation than when they are not. Overall, the findings suggest that gender stereotypes can have detrimental consequences for self-concept of ability of both male and female students. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Adversarial Sexual Attitudes Toward Women: The Relationships with Gender and Traditionalism

This investigation examines gender differences in adversarial attitudes toward women and their relationships with traditionalism and age. The sample participated in an online survey, collected at a large university in the west. The sample consisted of 777 individuals, 342 men and 375 women, with a mean age 22.22. Findings indicate that men significantly endorse rape myth acceptance, adversarial sexual beliefs and acceptance of interpersonal violence more than women. In addition, men are significantly more traditional in their gender role beliefs than women and age is significantly related to rape myth acceptance and acceptance of interpersonal violence. Within gender, men’s acceptance of all criterion variables increased with age whereas women’s acceptance of interpersonal violence increased with age. Findings also indicate more disparate incomes between the genders in lower income brackets, but more alignment in higher brackets. Implications are discussed in the context of theoretical considerations.     

Sex differences and handedness in hemispheric lateralization of tactile-spatial functions

Sex differences in spatial processing and handedness were studied with a tactile-spatial task in 27 male and 29 female right-handed undergraduate students in psychology. Subjects were asked to identify amorphous shapes to investigate possible male right-hemisphere specialization for spatial functions and bilateral representation among the women. The Annett handedness questionnaire estimated extent of right-handedness. Subjects were classified by major, and women by phase of menstrual cycle. Analysis shows significantly more right-handedness in women and ambidexterity in men. Over-all, men do not perform significantly better than women, although men outperform women with their left hands when handedness is covaried. Within sex, no difference is seen between left and right hand scores for men, but women perform significantly better with right than left hands. Further analyses suggest men appear right-hemisphere dominant for this task whereas women show left-hemisphere dominance. Analyses of hormonal data support recent research, in that for women on the pill there is a trend to perform worse than all other groups. Engineering students perform significantly better than all other majors.     

Love, Suspense, Sex, and Violence: Men’s and Women’s Film Predilections, Exposure to Sexually Violent Media, and their Relationship to Rape Myth Acceptance

This investigation addressed the relationship between men’s and women’s predilections for film with a love story, suspense, or sex and violence theme and how that predilection related to rape myth acceptance (RMA). Also examined was how men’s and women’s predilections, as they related to RMA, were moderated by exposure to different levels of sexually violent media based on a true story. Finally, the relationship between traditional attitudes and film predilection, as well as the relationship between film predilection and attitudes toward film editing, were investigated. Results indicate that men prefer film with sex and violence significantly more than women do, whereas women prefer love stories significantly more than men do. Those with sex and violence film predilections are more accepting of RMA than those with love story or suspense predilections. Women’s film predilections and their relationship to RMA attitudes are moderated to an extent by exposure to sexually violent media based on a true story, whereas men’s attitudes remain unaffected. Finally, those with sex and violence film predilections are less in favor of film editing than are those with suspense or love story predilections. Theoretical explanations for the findings are discussed and their implications.     

Arbitrary Social Norms Influence Sex Differences in Romantic Selectivity

ABSTRACT— Men tend to be less selective than women when evaluating and pursuing potential romantic partners. The present experiment employed speed-dating procedures to test a novel explanation for this sex difference: The mere act of physically approaching a potential romantic partner (vs. being approached), a behavior that is more characteristic of men than of women, increases one's attraction to that partner. This hypothesis was supported in a sample of speed daters ( N = 350) who attended a heterosexual event where either men (eight events) or women (seven events) rotated from one partner to the next while members of the other sex remained seated. Rotators were significantly less selective than were sitters, which meant that the tendency for men to be less selective than women at events where men rotated disappeared at events where women rotated. These effects were mediated by increased self-confidence among rotators relative to sitters.