DEVELOPMENT OF ANDROGYNY

While many researchers have documented the existence of pressures toward traditional sex-typing in the family, schools, and media, little consideration has been given to the effectiveness of these sources in fostering more flexible orientations to sex-typing. The present paper focuses on the extent to which parents are able to influence their children toward the development of nonstereotyped behaviors, conceptualized here in terms of androgyny. This issue is examined through an-exploration of several theories of sex-role development and empirical research on sex-role development. Additional consideration of theories and research on life-span development and resistance among children in the current culture to nonstereotyped behavior lead to a distinction between short-term and long-term effects of nonsexist parental behavior. Although androgynous parents may not produce androgynous children, their children often do grow up to be androgynous adults.     

Sex-role differences in children's identification with counterstereotypical televised portrayals

Studies of television's effects on children's sex-role learning suggest that the medium's current contribution is toward traditional sex-role development, but the medium may be effective in fostering nontraditional sex-role learning. The purpose was to determine television's effectiveness in promoting nonsexist role learning among children with different sex-role orientations. The Bem Sex Role Inventory was adapted to empirically define the sex-role preferences of 124 girls and 114 boys, aged 9 to 12. After viewing a television program designed to diminish sex-role stereotypes, respondents indicated the extent of their identification with the characters. The results suggest that androgynous children tend to be as likely as feminine children, and more likely than masculine children, to identify with nontraditional televised models.This study was conducted as a portion of the author's doctoral dissertation at the University of Southern California. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Aimée Dorr for her valuable suggestions.     

College Adjustment Problems and Attitudes Toward Drinking Reported by Feminine, Androgynous, and Masculine College Women

Two studies compared attitudes toward various issues and adaptations to demands of college life that were reported by feminine, androgynous, and masculine sex-typed females. Study 1 showed that feminine sex-typed females reported lower involvement in academic competition, fewer difficulties with peer pressures, and less exclusion by fraternities and sororities from college social life than did androgynous and masculine females. Androgynous and masculine females gave similar responses, showing high involvement in academic competition, negative reactions to peer pressures, and resentment toward male friends who cancel plans. Study 2 compared attitudes of feminine, androgynous, and masculine female college students toward drinking. Discriminant analysis showed that over 99% of the subjects could be correctly classified according to sex type on the basis of two dimensions: (1) sociable drinking and (2) drinking due to peer pressure and social discomfort. Masculine arid androgynous females were significantly more likely than feminine females to endorse questions related to social drinking. Masculine females showed the greatest potential for problem drinking from social pressures and for escape from social discomfort. Results supported Kelly and Worell's (1977) argument that the adaptive values of different sex-role orientations depend on the demands of the environment.     

Sex-role identity,sex of other,and affective relationship as determinants of interpersonal conflict-management styles

Previous research in sex-role identity has explored behavioral differences in a variety of contexts. Only recently, however, have differences in interaction style been investigated. The study reported here was designed to assess behavioral differences in one important type of interaction: interpersonal conflict. Of 143 college students responding to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), a final sample of 57 subjects provided questionnaire data on five conflict-management modes in hypothetical conflicts with others who varied on factors of sex and affective relationship with respondent. Results of the MANOVA analysis suggested that feminine persons disapprove of competition more than persons of masculine and androgynous sex-role identification. The results further suggested that masculine persons may differentiate less between liked and disliked others in their competitive behavior than do feminine and androgynous persons. Finally, results suggested that conflicts with liked, as opposed to disliked, others are managed with less competition and more accommodation, collaboration, and compromise for all sex-role identity groups.     

Differential effectiveness of two classification procedures on the Bem Sex Role Inventory

Two procedures-a simple median split and a difference/median split method-were used to classify 102 male and 129 female college students into masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated sex role orientations on the basis of their Bern Sex Role Inventory scores. Differences in classification occurred among nearly one-third of the subjects, and as expected, the difference/median split procedure was more successful in predicting sex-role ideology. Using this procedure, masculine-typed females were found to be most profeminist in their attitudes, while low masculinity females were most conservative. No significant differences were obtained for the male groups using either procedure. Future research with the BSRI and related sex-role measures should employ similar comparisons to determine the relative validity of the two procedures.     

Sex-role and opposite-sex interpersonal attraction

Androgynous, traditional, and undifferentiated male and female subjects indicated their attraction to three opposite-sex strangers who were described as having an androgynous, traditional, and undifferentiated sex-role. Subjects' ability to describe the sex-roles of the strangers was also measured. Androgynous strangers were most preferred, undifferentiated strangers least preferred. The least preferred undifferentiated strangers' sex-role was most accurately described. Subjects were least successful in describing the androgynous sex-role.     

Sex-role attitudes,identities, and political ideology

This study examines whether sex-role identities and attitudes toward sex roles are part of a more general liberal—conservative dimension of political ideology. Survey data are analyzed from two independent random samples of Indiana University students in 1974–1975. Sex-role attitudes are measured by two scales, dealing with evaluations of the traditional sex-based division of labor and levels of sex-stereotyping of various tasks. The Bem Sex Role Inventory is used to measure respondents' sex-role identities. Those who score more liberal or flexible on each measure of sex-role attitudes are also very likely to hold liberal political attitudes. These correlations are strong and consistent enough to indicate that sex-role attitudes fit into a more general liberal—conservative ideology, at least among college students. Correlations between sex-role identities and political attitudes are much weaker. Among men, liberal political attitudes are associated with a more flexible (androgynous) sex-role identity; among women, in contrast, liberal political attitudes are related more consistently to a more traditionally masculine sex-role identity.We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the Indiana University Women's Studies Program, Michael A. Maggiotto, Christine Williams, and especially Barbara Allen for her insightful comments and capable data analysis.     

Sex roles, gender, and fear

Male and female college students classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated on the Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory (N = 199) were given the Wolpe (1969) Fear Inventory. Significant differences in average fear scores were seen between men and women and between the four sex-role categories, with sex role and gender contributing equally to the variability. The argument is raised here that excessive fearfulness or fearlessness might be as much a product of sex-role conditioning as a product of gender.     

THE INFLUENCE OF SEX-ROLE IDENTITY AND OCCUPATIONAL ATTAINMENT ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF ASIAN AMERICAN WOMEN

This study examined the extent to which sex-role identity as defined by Bem's typology is related to occupational attainment, self–esteem, and work satisfaction for 161 employed Asian American women. Three major hypotheses were tested: (a) Masculine and androgynous Asian American women have a higher level of occupational attainment than those with feminine and undifferentiated sex-role identity; (b) androgynous Asian American women have a higher level of self-esteem and a greater degree of work satisfaction than those with other types of sex-role identity; and (c) the higher the level of occupational attainment secured by Asian American women, the greater their work satisfaction and the higher their self-esteem. As predicted, sex-role identity was significantly related to occupational attainment. Androgynous Asian American women and those with a high level of occupational attainment had a higher level of self-esteem and a greater degree of work satisfaction than those with other types of sex-role identity. The implications of these findings for Bem's formulation of androgyny, its relation to occupational achievement, and its consequences for psychological health and work outcomes are discussed.     

Sex Roles,Gender, and Fear

Male and female college students classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated on the Bern (1974) Sex Role Inventory (N = 199) were given the Wolpe (1969) Fear Inventory. Significant differences in average fear scores were seen between men and women and between the four sex-role categories, with sex role and gender contributing equally to the variability. The argument is raised here that excessive fearfulness or fearlessness might be as much a product of sex-role conditioning as a product of gender.     

Dimensions and correlates of third through eighth graders' sex-role self-concepts

The sex-role self-concepts of 238 third- through eighth-grade children were assessed by means of a modified Bem Sex Role Inventory. Most children's sex-role self-concepts were congruent with their biological sex, although a large portion of the sample was categorized as having androgynous self-concepts (33.98% of males and 31.11% of females). The frequency of cross-sex-role self-concepts was very low. The stability of children's sex-role self-concepts was evidenced by nonsignificant developmental trends in the percentage of children classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated. The relationship between children's sex-role self-concept and general self-concept, occupational stereotyping, frequency of TV watching, and a variety of parent-rated behaviors was also explored. While some developmental trends and sex differences occurred, sex-role self-concept was nonsignificantly related to these variables. Results are discussed in terms of the usefulness of the sex-role self-concept, particularly androgyny, as a developmental construct.The authors would like to thank the children and parents of St. Helen's Grammar School for their cooperation, and Karen Hyde, Jeff Wilbert, and Jill Tschopp for their help in data collection and analysis.     

Sex-role orientation of college students and their same-sex parents

The study examined similarities and differences between sex-role orientations of college students and their same-sex parents. College undergraduates filled out the Bem Sex-role Inventory twice: once to describe themselves and the second time to describe their same-sex parents. The inventory was also used to obtain parental self-reports. Compared to their perceptions of their same-sex parents, male students described themselves as more feminine and female students described themselves as more masculine. Also, male students described their fathers as less feminine and female students described their mothers as both less masculine and less feminine than the parents described themselves. Students' femininity scores correlated significantly with the parental femininity scores both actual and perceived, however, no consistent relationship was found for the masculinity scores. Androgynous students and students with the reversed sex-role orientation perceived their parents as androgynous and reversed, respectively.     

The relationship of sex-role orientation to self-perceived health status in middle-aged males

The purpose of this study was to determine how sex-role orientation was related to self-perceived health status among a group of middle-aged males. A nonprobability sample of 237 male volunteers between the ages of 40 and 59, of whom 88.7% were engaged in professional occupations, completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and two separate measures employed to assess self-perceived health status. As predicted, the results indicated that on both measures of self-perceived health status, the middle-aged men with a traditional male sex-role orientation or those in the masculine classification reported lower self-perceived levels of health than did males considered to be androgynous. In this sample of professional middle-aged males, an androgynous sex-role orientation was, therefore, associated with higher levels of self-perceived health than was a traditional male sex-role orientation. Finally, an unhypothesized finding was that the men in the undifferentiated category also evidenced lower levels of self-perceived health than males who were androgynous.This research was part of a doctoral dissertation submitted to the University of Maryland, College Park.     

Sex,Sex Roles,and Emotional Expressiveness

Differences in emotional expressiveness between males and females have generally been attributed to sex-role socialization, but most studies have not included measures of sex-role orientation. We hypothesized that sex role would be a more salient factor than sex and that androgynous and feminine persons would be more expressive than masculine and undifferentiated individuals. Data were gathered from 230 college students using Bem's (1975) Sex-Role Inventory and Balswick's (1975) Expression of Emotion Scale. Both hypotheses were supported.     

Opposite-sex interpersonal attraction as a function of the sex roles of the perceiver and the perceived

Androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated high school males and females were asked to rate opposite-sex androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated stimulus persons on both platonic and romantic liking measures. The sex-role attributes of the perceiver did not importantly mediate preferences. However, the sex-role personality characteristics of the stimulus person had significant consequences for attraction. Androgynous stimulus persons were found to be the most attractive on both platonic and romantic measures of liking. Females especially preferred androgynous males, whereas males tended to prefer androgynous females for friendship and feminine females for romance. Undifferentiated stimulus persons were consistently the least popular. Discussion of the possible dynamics underlying the obtained pattern of results is offered.The authors would like to thank Mary Harackiewicz, Bella DePaulo, Shelley Taylor, and especially John Kihlstrom for their help with this research.     

Personality Characteristics of Androgynous and Sex-Typed Females

Personality characteristics of androgynous and sex-typed females identified by the gem Sex-Role Inventory were studied using the California Psychological Inventory. The results indicated that sex-typed females showed personality characteristics associated with traditional sex-role stereotypes while androgynous females showed both masculine nd feminine characteristics. There was an indication that androgynous and masculine females were better adjusted socially than feminine or undifferentiated females.     

Androgyny,ego development,and psychosocial crisis resolution

The present study examined the relationship of psychological androgyny with ego development in the context of Loevinger's theory and with psychosocial crisis resolution from the perspective of Erikson's theory. A sample of 30 male and 30 female adults completed the Bem Sex-role Inventory, the Washington University Sentence Completion Test, and the Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD). The androgynous individuals were predominate in the higher stages of Loevinger's hierarchical model of ego development, with the masculine sex-typed orientation falling between the androgynous and feminine sex-typed groups. The highest scores on psychosocial personality development, as assessed by the IPD, were obtained by those with an androgynous sex-role orientation, followed by those with masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated orientations, in that order. These results support the view that psychological androgyny represents an added adaptive capacity that can be developed in association with the development of higher ego functioning. These findings applied equally to both sexes and all age groups.     

Relationship of therapists' sex, sex-role, and age to awareness of the salience of gender-related concepts in analogue research: a preliminary finding regarding distribution of therapists by sex-role

In response to speculation that awareness of feminist concerns had made patient analogue studies transparent, the present study was done to estimate the extent and correlates of therapists' awareness of the gender-related characteristics of such a sex-role questionnaire. A national sample of 131 male and 120 female therapists showed that male therapists tend to be sex-typed and female therapists are predominantly androgynous. No significant relationship obtained between the therapists' sex-role and their awareness that this experiment involved gender. The relationship between sex of therapist and awareness only approached significance. Younger therapists tended to be more aware than older ones.