前瞻记忆类型差异及动机与任务序列对前瞻记忆的影响*

本文采用“模拟星期”范式通过3个实验分别考察了前瞻记忆任务类型的差异以及动机与任务序列对前瞻记忆的影响。结果表明：(1)规律性前瞻记忆任务的正确率显著高于非规律性的,即使本研究条件下对非规律性前瞻记忆任务进行奖励与惩罚,仍没有消除两者间的差异。(2)不论是惩罚还是奖励都可以显著提高非规律性前瞻记忆的成绩,而且动机促进作用会蔓延至非直接强化的前瞻记忆任务。(3)固定序列前瞻记忆成绩显著优于随机序列的,且在实验过程中固定序列前瞻记忆的成绩呈上升趋势,而随机序列的基本不变,固定序列在一定程度上反映了行为习惯的建立过程。(4)不论前瞻记忆任务规律与否,惩罚或奖励,任务序列如何,基于时间的前瞻记忆成绩均优于基于事件的前瞻记忆的成绩。(5)时间确认任务中,被试翻看时钟的次数与其正确率间呈显著正相关,且越临近规定时间翻看次数越多,呈J型分布。     

任务难度对前瞻记忆TAP效应影响的研究

前瞻记忆中的TAP效应是指,当进行中任务和前瞻任务加工类型一致时,前瞻记忆成绩要好于两者工类型不一致时.该研究采用双重任务范式,以大学生为被试,探讨了进行中任务难度对前瞻记忆TAP效应的影响,以揭示注意资源在TAP效应产生中的关键作用.结果表明:当进行中任务难度较低时,没有出现TAP效应,即进行中任务和前瞻任务的加工类型是否一致不会对前瞻记忆成绩产生显著影响;当进行中任务难度较高时,TAP效应部分出现.进一步说,当进行中任务加工类型为语义型时,语义型的前瞻任务成绩要显著好于结构型的前瞻任务成绩;而当进行中任务加工类型为结构型时,前瞻任务的加工类型没有对前瞻记忆成绩产生显著影响.     

目标显著性和任务重要性对数学学业不良生和学优生前瞻记忆和前瞻干扰效应的影响

有问卷调查表明,个体的学业成绩特别是数学成绩与前瞻记忆表现有一定的相关,学业不良生报告更多的前瞻记忆失败。也有实验研究显示,学业不良生在很多情况下前瞻记忆表现劣于学优生。但是,影响学业不良生前瞻记忆表现的因素却并不是很明确。本研究从目标显著性和任务重要性这两个可以着手于改善前瞻记忆的主要因素入手,考察其对数学学业不良生和学优生事件性前瞻记忆和前瞻干扰效应的影响,以期为提高学业不良生的前瞻记忆表现提供实证依据。 采用2学业成就（学业不良生、学优生）×2前瞻记忆任务重要性（强调重要、不强调）×2目标显著性（显著、不显著）混合实验设计,目标显著性为被试内变量,其他两个因素为被试间变量,在双任务实验范式（前瞻记忆任务镶嵌于进行中任务）中,考察三个因素对前瞻记忆正确率和反应时的影响。此外,被试还需完成基线条件,在基线条件下被试只有进行中任务,没有前瞻记忆任务,通过实验条件和基线条件的正确率和反应时差异,考察前瞻记忆任务对进行中任务的干扰效应,推测前瞻记忆的加工机制。结果表明,学业不良生在所有前瞻记忆任务表现均劣于学优生;目标显著性与前瞻记忆任务重要性对前瞻记忆正确率有显著的交互作用,强调任务重要性使目标不显著条件下的前瞻记忆正确率提高,对显著条件的前瞻记忆正确率没有影响。强调任务重要性使所有实验条件的前瞻记忆反应时下降,目标显著使所有实验条件的前瞻记忆正确率提高。所有实验条件进行中任务正确率低于基线条件,反应时也慢于基线条件,表明执行前瞻记忆任务对进行中任务产生了干扰,学业不良生和学优生在本实验条件下对前瞻记忆任务均采用监控的加工方式。结果说明,学业不良生前瞻记忆成绩较差,可以通过设置显著的目标提高其前瞻记忆成绩,当目标显著时无需强调其重要性,若无法设置显著的目标,则通过强调任务重要性提高前瞻记忆表现。     

前瞻记忆年老化研究的自然情境和实验室情境比较

年龄—前瞻记忆矛盾现象在实验室情境和自然情境研究中普遍存在。当任务设置为日常情境时, 前瞻记忆不受年龄影响或随年龄增长而促进, 前瞻记忆成绩可能受人格、生活方式、任务材料、提示等因素的影响; 当任务是实验室情境设置时, 与年轻被试相比, 老年被试前瞻记忆成绩一般都较差, 前瞻记忆成绩可能受回溯记忆负载、线索类型和策略控制加工的需求等因素的影响。年龄-前瞻记忆矛盾现象可能来自于环境与意向的社会性特征、认知资源分配策略等方面的原因。最后, 从被试控制、任务材料的设置、动机因素的探索等方面对今后的研究提出建议和展望。     

分散注意条件下前瞻记忆的完成水平及其影响因素初探

本研究试图探讨在分散注意条件下前瞻记忆的完成水平及其影响因素。被试为98名大学生。在实验中,当前任务为数字听写,同时放映一段无声动画短片,将前瞻记忆任务(即看到某一靶线索画面时在相应数字上做记号)嵌入其中,动画片结束后要求被试完成若干与动画片内容有关的问题(事先通过指导语告知)。结果发现：1、前瞻记忆任务的成绩与被试的性别几乎无关,与材料熟悉程度也无显著相关;2、与被试对材料的喜好程度显著相关,提示即使在分散注意条件下,被试在完成前瞻记忆任务时也可能会根据偏好自动调整注意的分配。     

线索特征和提示对基于事件前瞻记忆的影响

前瞻记忆是一种记住在将来执行某个意向活动的记忆。研究采取2线索类型×2提示被试间设计探究了线索特征和有无提示对基于事件前瞻记忆的影响。结果表明:(1)提示使前瞻记忆的反应速度明显变慢,说明基于事件前瞻记忆的加工过程可能是自动完成的;(2)在具体线索条件下,被试完成进行中任务的速度显著快于概念线索条件下的速度。说明线索类型虽然没有影响到前瞻记忆加工,但是影响到了进行中任务的效率。     

注意状态、认知方式与前瞻记忆的TAP效应

采用经典实验室研究范式,实验一探讨了前瞻记忆任务为知觉加工条件下,注意状态和前瞻记忆任务与进行中任务一致和不一致时对不同认知方式个体前瞻记忆成绩的影响,实验二探讨了前瞻记忆任务为语义加工条件下,注意状态和前瞻记忆任务与进行中任务一致和不一致时对不同认知方式个体前瞻记忆成绩的影响,结果表明,（1）在前瞻记忆任务加工类型是语义加工和知觉加工两种条件下,场依存与场独立个体均发现了TAP效应的存在,而且场依存个体表现出更明显的TAP效应;（2）当前瞻记忆任务与进行中任务的加工类型不一致时,场独立个体的前瞻记忆成绩明显高于场依存个体,而在两类任务加工类型一致情况下,场独立与场依存个体的前瞻记忆成绩不存在明显差异;（3）在前瞻记忆任务是知觉加工时,分心对前瞻记忆成绩有明显不利的影响;而在前瞻记忆任务是语义加工时,只有当前瞻记忆任务与进行中任务加工类型不一致时,分心对前瞻记忆才有明显不利的影响,而且在分心条件下的TAP效应更明显。     

加工焦点性和任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响

采用双任务范式,探讨了加工焦点性和进行中任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响。包括两个实验:实验一探讨进行中任务与前瞻记忆任务加工的焦点性和加工类型的一致性对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响;实验二探讨进行中任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生在在焦点加工和非焦点加工条件下前瞻记忆的影响。结果显示:焦点加工条件下的前瞻记忆成绩高于非焦点加工,且不受进行中任务负荷的影响;不管进行中任务与前瞻记忆任务的加工类型是否一致,在进行中任务负荷较高且非焦点加工条件下,场独立大学生的前瞻记忆成绩高于场依存大学生。本研究结果支持多重加工理论。     

概述和音乐对认知负荷和多媒体学习的影响

让学生学习多媒体呈现的有关移动通讯基础知识的材料,采用2(概述:概述vs.无概述)×2(背景音乐:有音乐vs.无音乐)的被试间设计,考察两因素对自评认知负荷、记忆和迁移成绩的影响.结果表明:两因素无交互作用;概述组的认知负荷显著低于无概述组,迁移成绩显著高于无概述组,两组记忆成绩没有显著差异;有背景音乐组的记忆成绩显著低于无音乐组,两组认知负荷和迁移成绩没有显著差异.     

A/B型人格对时间性前瞻记忆的影响

通过对比A/B两种人格者在执行即无社会关系特征又无个人重要性的时间性前瞻记忆任务时的时间性前瞻记忆成绩和在执行时间性前瞻记忆过程中的时间监控模式,发现A/B型人格的背景任务成绩和TBPM任务成绩都没有显著差异,而时间监视模式有显著差异。说明A型人格被试能更高效的利用认知资源,以更高效和更策略的时间监控模式完成TBPM任务。也说明TBPM是一类与时间监控能力密切相关的前瞻记忆类型。     

Prospective memory performance across adolescence

In the present study, the authors explored age differences in event-based prospective memory (PM) across adolescence. The tasks consisted of an ongoing task (OT; i.e., personality questionnaire items, math problems) and an embedded prospective task that required participants to remember to make a special response whenever they encountered a PM cue (i.e., a negative word in the OT). The 341 participants (aged 13-22 years) revealed a significant main effect of age, which indicated better PM performance of young adults compared with teenagers. Moreover, when emphasizing the OT versus the PM task, teenagers' PM profited from PM emphasis more than did young adults' PM. The authors discuss the data in the context of limited executive capacity as a factor influencing cognitive development across adolescence.     

Age-related differences and complexity of ongoing activities in time- and event-based prospective memory

Aging is presumed to disrupt self-initiated processing, and a time-based prospective memory task (i.e., action to be performed at a particular time) entails more self-initiated activities than an event-based prospective memory task (i.e., action to be performed to a critical event). Accordingly, older participants are predicted to be particularly bad in a time-based prospective memory task. However, the prediction is not always confirmed. Self-initiated activities entail central executive functioning. We therefore predicted the age deficit to emerge more clearly when the performance on the ongoing task also involved more central executive functioning. Time-based prospective memory among older adults collapsed when the complexity of the ongoing task increased. However, an age deficit was also obtained when the pacing of the event-based prospective memory task was high because of the general slowing of functioning by older adults.     

背景任务刺激间的时距对前瞻干扰效应的影响

前瞻记忆是指形成和保持一个意向直到合适的情境或时间再执行的一种记忆任务。由于在执行背景任务的过程中保持和提取前瞻意向, 使成功执行前瞻记忆任务与加工背景任务之间存在着相互影响。保持前瞻记忆意向对背景任务的反应时和正确率有影响的现象称之为前瞻干扰效应。本研究通过操纵背景任务刺激间时距的两个实验, 考察了背景任务刺激间时距长度对时间性前瞻记忆和事件性前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系的影响。结果发现随着背景任务刺激间时距缩短, 两类前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系发生了变化, 且在背景任务刺激间时距长度不同的情况下执行时间性前瞻记忆任务时, 被试查看时钟的策略也有差异。提示了时间性前瞻记忆任务与事件性前瞻记忆任务认知加工机制上的不同。     

The Importance of On-going Concurrent Activities as a Function of Age in Time- and Event-based Prospective Memory

Time-based prospective memory is assumed to involve more self-initiated activities than event-based prospective memory. As age negatively affects self-initiated activities, older participants will show more prospectivememory deterioration than younger participants in time-based tasks. Einstein, McDaniel, Richardson, Guynn, and Cunfer (1995) indeed observed such a decrement in time-based prospective memory while d'Ydewalle, Utsi, and Brunfaut (1996) obtained a better time-based than event-based prospective memory among elderly. The on-going concurrent activity in Einstein et al. (1995) involved answering general questions, whereas d'Ydewalle et al. (1996) used a face-identification task. In an attempt to explain the discrepant results, the present experiment compares time- and event-based memory with young and older participants using the two types of on-going task. However, the better performance of the older participants in the timebased prospective memory task is obtained in the two on-going tasks. A difference in timing constraints in the procedure may explain why the older participants in Einstein et al. (1995) did perform more poorly in the timebased task, whereas our ageing participants did not show such a deterioration, suggesting that the slowing down of mental activities may provide a better explanation than the increasing lack of self-initiated activities by the elderly. All age effects in prospective-memory performance disappear when performance on the target items (i.e. items where a prospective-memory response is required) in the on-going task is taken into account. We emphasise the need to study trade-offs in prospective-memory research as a prospective-memory task is always embedded in another (on-going) activity.     

Prospective memory and ageing paradox with event-based tasks: A study of young,young-old,and old-old participants

Research on ageing and prospective memory—remembering to do something in the future—has resulted in paradoxical findings, whereby older adults are often impaired in the laboratory but perform significantly better than younger adults in naturalistic settings. Nevertheless, there are very few studies that have examined prospective memory both in and outside the laboratory using the same sample of young and old participants. Moreover, most naturalistic studies have used time-based tasks, and it is unclear whether the prospective memory and ageing paradox extends to event-based tasks. In this study, 72 young (18–30 years), 79 young-old (61–70 years), and 72 old-old (71–80 years) participants completed several event-based tasks in and outside the laboratory. Results showed that the ageing paradox does exist for event-based tasks but manifests itself differently from that in time-based tasks. Thus, younger adults outperformed old-old participants in two laboratory event-based tasks, but there were no age effects for a naturalistic task completed at home (remembering to write the date and time in the upper left corner of a questionnaire). The young and old-old also did not differ in remembering to retrieve a wristwatch from a pocket at the end of the laboratory session. This indicates that the paradox may be due to differences in ongoing task demands in the lab and everyday life, rather than the location per se. The findings call for a concentrated effort towards a theory of cognitive ageing that identifies the variables that do, or do not, account for this paradox.     

On the relationship between effort toward an ongoing task and cue detection in event-based prospective memory

In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive task in which intention-related cues were embedded in 3 experiments. High effort toward the ongoing task resulted in decreased prospective memory only when the cognitive processing required to identify the cue was similar to the cognitive processing required to complete the ongoing activity. When the required processing was different for the 2 tasks, cue detection was not affected by manipulated effort, despite there being an overall cost to decision latencies in the ongoing tasks from possessing the intention. Resource allocation policies and factors that affect them are proposed to account for ongoing vs. prospective memory task performance.     

情绪刺激对前瞻记忆的影响

使用情绪图片作为背景任务刺激,通过两个实验来考察积极情绪和消极情绪对时间性和事件性前瞻记忆的影响。结果发现,对于背景任务的反应时,在时间性前瞻记忆和事件性前瞻记忆中,情绪的主效应都显著。而对于前瞻任务的正确率,在两种前瞻记忆中,情绪的主效应都不显著。将两个实验的数据合并分析发现,对于前瞻任务的正确率,任务类型的主效应显著,即时间性前瞻记忆的成绩显著高于事件性前瞻记忆; 而情绪的主效应不显著。结果表明,背景任务中不同的情绪刺激会对个体完成背景任务的速度产生影响,而对前瞻记忆任务的执行不会产生影响。     

Enhanced recognition of words previously presented in a task with nonfocal prospective memory requirements

Remembering to perform deferred actions when events are encountered in the future is referred to as event-based prospective memory. Individuals can be slower to respond to ongoing tasks when they have prospective memory task requirements. These costs are interpreted as evidence for cognitive control processes allocated to the prospective memory task, but we know little about these processes. In the present article, the recognition of nontargets previously presented in an ongoing task with prospective memory task requirements provided evidence for the differential processing of individual ongoing task items. Participants performed a lexical decision task, where some participants were required to make an alternative prospective memory response either to a specific word (focal) or to exemplars of a category (nonfocal). Participants were slower to respond to the ongoing task in the nonfocal conditions than in the control condition (costs), regardless of whether or not prospective memory task importance was emphasized. Participants were also slower to respond to the ongoing task in the focal conditions than in the control condition, but only when prospective memory task importance was emphasized. This task was followed by a surprise recognition memory test in which nontarget words from the lexical decision task were intermixed with new words. Focal conditions, but not nonfocal conditions, showed better discrimination on the recognition task, as compared with the control condition. Participants in nonfocal conditions mapped the semantic features of the ongoing task letter strings onto the semantic features of their prospective memory category, and this elaboration in the processing of individual nontargets increased incidental learning and produced the recognition benefit.     

前瞻记忆后效的加工机制：对自发提取观点和抑制观点的检验

摘 要 实验1探究前瞻记忆后效的产生是否消耗认知资源,实验2进一步探究前瞻记忆后效产生过程中消耗的认知资源的去向。实验1结果显示在完成阶段,相比于基线条件,其它四种实验条件的进行中任务反应速度均较慢,实验2结果显示无论线索是否显著,前瞻记忆后效均会随着认知负荷的提高而提高。结果表明前瞻记忆后效产生过程中会消耗认知资源对原意向进行抑制。本研究支持了抑制的观点。     

Time-based and event-based prospective memory across adulthood: underlying mechanisms and differential costs on the ongoing task

The authors investigated the phenomenon that performance in an ongoing task declines when individuals must carry out a prospective memory (PM) task. This effect is referred to as the PM interference effect. The authors examined whether the PM interference effect differs between event-based and time-based PM tasks and whether it is increased among the elderly. The authors also investigated adult age differences in PM performance and the potential underlying mechanisms of the age deficits in PM. They found that the PM interference effect was greater in event-based than in time-based tasks. However, aging was not associated with an increase in PM interference effects. Age differences in PM performance were more exaggerated in time-based than event-based PM, but they were not mediated by age differences in traditional cognitive ability measures. In time-based PM, age showed a unique adverse effect even after controlling for the ability to externally monitor the time, leading to the possibility that aging disrupts time-based PM because of deficits in internally processing the time.