The measurement of locus of control in black preschool and primary school children

Developed a form of the Preschool and Primary Nowicki-Strickland locus of control scale (PPNSIE) for use with black children (PPNSIE-B). The psychometric data suggest that the new scale is worthy of further examination and development.     

Factor specific differences in locus of control for emotionally disturbed and normal children.

The Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children was given to 20 normal and 20 emotionally disturbed children to investigate the differences between the two groups on self-reported locus of control. The locus of control score and scores for each separate factor were calculated. Separate analyses of variance indicated that emotionally disturbed children did not differ from normals on overall locus of control nor on four of the five factors. However, one factor, Helplessness, differentiated the two groups with emotionally disturbed children endorsing more Helplessness items. The results are discussed in terms of factor specific methodology and in regards to the clinical relevance of Helplessness as a key factor.     

The Discriminative Power of Szondi's Quotient of Tendency Tension

The Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children was given to 20 normal and 20 emotionally disturbed children to investigate the differences between the two groups on self-reported locus of control. The locus of control score and scores for each separate factor were calculated. Separate analyses of variance indicated that emotionally disturbed children did not differ from normals on overall locus of control nor on four of the five factors. However, one factor. Helplessness, differentiated the two groups with emotionally disturbed children endorsing more Helplessness items. The results are discussed in terms of factor specific methodology and in regards to the clinical relevance of Helplessness as a key factor.     

Effects of a structured behavior modification treatment program on locus of control in behaviorally disturbed children

The effect of a 10-day behavior modification treatment program on locus of control was investigated. The subjects were children (N = 130; 6 to 12 years old) with severe behavioral disorders who were predominantly from low socioeconomic backgrounds, from broken homes, and socially deprived. Pre- and post-testing was done with the Nowicki-Strickland Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale (Nowicki & Duke, 1974) and the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). Children between the ages of 10 and 12 responded to therapy with a significant increase in internality, but younger children did not.     

Locus of Control and Hostility: Sex Differences

The Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External locus of control scale and the Hostility and Direction of Hostility Questionnaire were administered to 35 male and 35 female college students. In both the total sample and the female sample, significant correlations were observed between locus of control and hostility with an external locus of control being associated with greater hostility. Although locus of control was significantly related to all of the hostility scores in the female sample, the male sample generally showed no significant relationship between locus of control and hostility. The sex differences in the data and the possibility of item overlap between the locus of control and hostility measures are discussed.     

Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement in Health Risk and HIV and AIDS Prevention

The purpose of the study was to establish the difference in health and HIV and AIDS risk between students with an internal locus of control (LOC; n = 124) and students with an external LOC (n = 133). The study assessed students' LOC and health risks associated with self‐control, fatalism, achievement‐oriented behavior, deferment of gratification, personal values, and alienation. The findings indicate significant differences in health risks between students with an internal LOC and those with an external LOC. Future research should focus on LOC, reinforcement, and HIV and AIDS risk.     

Differences in locus of control between obese adult and adolescent females undergoing weight reduction

Rotter's (1966) Internal-External (I-E) Scale was administered to 65 adult and adolescent females in two outpatient obesity treatment programs. The adults were significantly higher in internal locus of control (LOC) and the adolescents higher in external LOC. These differences suggest that although the adults felt limited control over their weight and eating behavior, this did not reflect a lack of perceived control over other factors in their lives. In contrast, the adolescents appeared to feel that they had limited control over an array of factors in their lives.     

Locus of control and socialization

On the basis of classical association theory, it was predicted that an external locus of control would characterize undersocialization. This hypothesis was tested on a random sample of secondary school children, using a battery of self-report “socialization-delinquent personality” measures to assess degree of socialization. Factorial validity for the use of these measures was obtained from a factor analysis which uncovered a general factor of socialization, while evidence for convergent validity was derived from the relationship between these scales and teacher ratings of refractory behavior. Scores from the Child Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Scale were found to predict undersocialization in the expected direction. Several possible interpretations of this relationship were suggested and a biosocial explanation was advanced to account for the possible simultaneous development of both externality and undersocialization.     

A Search for Systematic Personality Differentiae of the Only Child in Young Adulthood

The effects of the affective relationship between the model and the observer and locus of control on imitative behavior were investigated by exposing 28 boys to their most liked peer and least liked peer on a simple imitative task. Locus of control was determined by the Nowicki-Strickland (6) Locus of Control Scale for Children. More imitative responses were exhibited to the most liked peer than to the least liked peer, and a positive correlation between number of imitative responses and internal locus of control was found. Results were interpreted as indicating the need to control the affective relationship between the model and observer and as supporting Bandura (1) in that imitative behavior is primarily under self-reinforcement control.     

Parenting Beliefs and Locus of Control Orientation

Parenting beliefs and parents' perceptions of locus of control (LOC) were investigated. Parents (n = 167 dyads) of first-born children, ages 3 months (n = 80) and 3 years (n = 87), representing rural (n = 60) and urban (n = 107) families, completed LOC measure and sorted behavioral statements for actual and ideal parenting beliefs using Q-sort methodology. Factor analysis determined LOC factors for fathers and mothers. Q-sort responses factored into four profiles, each containing four subgroups of parents based on type of sort (actual/ideal) and sex of parent (mother/father). An analysis of variance investigated the relationships between profiles and LOC factors. Mothers who believed in fate stressed educational materials and good nutrition as behaviors of the ideal parent but stressed sharing and educational toys in actual interaction with their children. Mothers who believed they had control over event outcomes emphasized affection and verbal interaction as behaviors of the ideal parent. Fathers who indicated the ideal parent should stress good health habits and teach responsibility believed they had more power over their lives than did fathers who emphasized creativity and verbal interaction. Parents placed daily show of affection for children among the most important behaviors whereas threatening child abandonment was among the least desirable behaviors.     

Perceived Parental Acceptance-Rejection and the Development of Children's Locus of Control

In a study of relationships between locus of control and perceived parental acceptance-rejection as they vary by age, 271 boys and girls from 9 through 11 years of age were administered the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale, short form, and the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire. A multiple regression/correlation analysis revealed that internality increased significantly with children's age and with children's perceptions of increased parental acceptance. Moreover, age and parenting jointly accounted for 22% of the variance in children's locus of control scores.     

Maternal Control Behavior and Locus of Control: Examining Mechanisms in the Relation Between Maternal Anxiety Disorders and Anxiety Symptomatology in Children

This study tested components of a proposed model of child anxiety and examined the mediational roles of (1) maternal control behavior, (2) maternal external locus of control, and (3) child external locus of control in the association between maternal and child anxiety. Thirty-eight clinically anxious mothers and 37 nonanxious mothers participated along with one of their children aged 6 to 14 (52.0% female; 78.7% Caucasian). Path analysis indicated that the overall model fit the data very well. Analyses also indicated that child external locus of control mediated the associations between (1) maternal and child anxiety and (2) maternal control behavior and child anxiety. Maternal anxiety was not related to maternal control behavior and maternal external locus of control was not associated with child anxiety. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical models (e.g., Chorpita and Barlow 1998) regarding the transmission of maternal anxiety to their children and the specific roles of maternal behavior and child locus of control.     

Locus of control predicts appraisals and cardiovascular reactivity to a novel active coping task

These two studies investigated the influence of dispositional locus of control (LOC) on subjective and physiological responses to a novel laboratory stressor task. Across two studies, 64 healthy undergraduate students, ages 18-22, completed Levenson's (LOC) scales for internal, powerful others, and chance prior to performing a video-game task. Participants rated pretask and posttask stressfulness and coping ability (i.e., measures of primary and secondary appraisal). Cardiovascular measures (heart period, HP; preejection period, PEP; respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA; cardiac output, CO; systolic blood pressure, SBP; diastolic blood pressure, DBP & total peripheral resistance, TPR) were recorded during 4-minute baseline and 4-minute stressor task periods. The internal LOC factor predicted pretask reports of coping ability as well as posttask reports of stressfulness. In contrast, the powerful-others LOC factor predicted cardiac changes (HP, PEP, and RSA) during the task but not cardiac output or any other vascular change measure. These results underscore the importance of using the three subscales of the Levenson LOC to assess relationships between dispositional LOC and the response to stressors because self-reported appraisals of a task are predicted by a different component of dispositional LOC than are task-related cardiovascular functions.     

Coping Strategies and Locus of Control as Mediating Variables in the Relation Between Exposure to Political Life Events and Psychological Adjustment in Israeli Children

The relation between political life events and distress was examined with particular emphasis on coping strategies and locus of control as two possible mediators. Subjects were 88 Israeli children. Results partially supported a linear relation between reported impact of exposure and distress. Findings for coping strategies as a mediator suggested, counterintuitively, that greater use of coping strategies is related to more experienced distress. Findings for locus of control as a mediator suggested that subjects with external locus of control experience greater distress, other than in the case of depressive symptomatology. These results indicate that coping strategies and locus of control play a complex role in the stress-outcome relation, the precise nature of which remains to be resolved. Theoretical, clinical and political implications of the findings are discussed.     

Three measures of locus of control: what do they measure?

The Rotter, Adult Nowicki-Strickland, and Levenson IE scales were completed by 175 undergraduate students. Factor analyses reconfirmed the factor structure of the Levenson IE scale. Partial correlation analyses showed that the portion of common variance shared by the Rotter IE and the Adult Nowicki-Strickland IE scales associated closely with Levenson's Chance factor. These findings support a multi-dimensional view of locus of control attribution.     

Locus of Control Beliefs Mediate the Relationship Between Religious Functioning and Psychological Health

Theistic and spiritually based beliefs and behaviors have been demonstrated to consistently predict physical and mental health, although the psychological processes underlying these relationships are unclear. This study investigated associative relationships and pathways of mediation between religious functioning, locus of control (LOC) and health. The sample consisted of 122 Christians (79 women, 43 men) who were predominately Catholic, ranging in age from 18 to 80 (M = 45.47, SD = 15.0). Participants were recruited from churches in the Western suburbs of Melbourne, Australia, and completed a questionnaire package measuring (1) psychological and physical health, (2) the religious variables of awareness of God, instability and impression management, and (3) God, internal and external LOC domains. Results indicated that awareness of God and internal LOC were associated with better health, whereas external LOC and instability were associated with poorer health. God LOC and impression management were not significantly associated with health. Sobel tests were used to analyse mediation hypotheses. Internal LOC was found to mediate the relationship between awareness of God and better psychological health, and external LOC was found to mediate the relationship between instability and poorer psychological health. These findings are of considerable clinical significance.     

Father and mother contributions to family functioning when the child has a mental delay

Less is known about the father's than the mother's role in family adaptation to children with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships of both father and mother use of coping strategies and perceptions of the child with measures of family functioning style. Subjects were 26 families of 30-month-old children with a mental delay and a comparison group of 26 families of same-aged children with no delay. Functioning style for study families showed a balance of cohesion and adaptability; comparison families were more chaotically flexible on the adaptability scale. Mothers and fathers agreed on family functioning style. Study parents made the greatest use of external coping strategies, while in both groups mothers used more external and fathers more internal coping strategies. Relationships between coping and family functioning varied by parent and by group. Results suggest the need for further exploration of the separate needs of fathers and mothers in maintaining balanced family functioning.     

Parental enabling attitudes and locus of control of at-risk and honors students

Parental enabling attitudes and behavior interfere with the child's ability to take responsibility for his or her behavior. Enabling is expressed in overprotectiveness and manipulation in which parents insulate their children from unpleasant circumstances and from making mistakes. Unfortunately, these are the very situations in which most children learn self-control, independence, and strategies to correct aberrant behavior. Children of enabling parents often fail to learn that their actions have consequences. The Lynch Enabling Survey for Parents (LESP), a forty-item questionnaire designed to assess the enabling behavior of parents, was evaluated to establish its psychometric properties. In Experiment 1, 416 parents responded to the LESP. The instrument was determined to be reliable (rs = .84 and .92 for split-half and test-retest reliability, respectively) and valid. Factor analysis established four factors, assessing Direct Enabling Parent Involvement, Indirect Nonenabling Parent Involvement, Direct Nonenabling Parent Involvement, and Indirect Enabling Parent Involvement. In Experiment 2, the LESP and the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale were used to assess the differences between ninth-grade at-risk and honors students and their parents. The responses of parents of at-risk students on the LESP were significantly more enabling than were the responses of the parents of honors students. At-risk and honors students were also significantly different in their locus of control. Lastly, there was a significant relationship between parents' LESP scores and their children's locus of control scores.     

Locus of Control Orientation Among Obese Adults in Outpatient Treatment for Obesity

We studied locus of control (LOC) in samples of obese and nonobese subjects. We administered Rotter's (1966) I-E Scale to 106 obese adults in outpatient treatment for obesity and to 99 nonobese controls. The obese subjects were significantly more internally oriented than the control group. These findings challenge currently held assumptions on the directionality of LOC in obese groups. The results contradict the consensus among researchers that obese individuals have an external LOC orientation. The finding that internal LOC is associated with the obese condition may be a useful predictor variable influencing obesity treatment, approaches, and outcome.     

Be Fair,Your Employees Are Watching: A Relational Response Model of External Third‐Party Justice

There is growing theoretical recognition in the organizational justice literature that an organization's treatment of external parties (such as patients, community members, customers, and the general public) shapes its own employees’ attitudes and behavior toward it. However, the emerging third‐party justice literature has an inward focus, emphasizing perceptions of the treatment of other insiders (e.g., coworkers or team members). This inward focus overlooks meaningful “outward” employee concerns relating to how organizations treat external parties. We propose a relational response model to advance the third‐party justice literature asserting that the organization's fair treatment of external parties sends important relational signals to employees that shape their social exchange perceptions toward their employer. Supporting this proposition, in two multisource studies in separate healthcare organizations we found that patient‐directed justice had indirect effects on supervisory cooperative behavior ratings through organizational trust and organizational identification.