类似性结构组合的实验研究

在国外研究使用点击映射(one—shot mapping)的基础上,本研究在一个实验中从新的角度使用了点击映射的方法探讨了关于类似性的一种观点：类似性判断与差异性判断不是一种对立的镜像关系;研究结果表明。类似性判断与差异性判断都是结构组合。     

3～5岁儿童概念比较过程研究

本研究以两个实验探讨了儿童的一个认知过程:人优先考虑共同性,其次才是组合差异性与非组合差异性。3~5岁三个年龄组儿童分别对日常生活的基本概念进行类似性判断与差异性判断。实验1的结果表明,3岁年龄组的儿童还没有表现出组合差异性,4岁年龄组的儿童初步表现出明显的组合差异性,5岁年龄组的儿童表现出明显的组合差异性。他们首先考虑共同性,其次才是组合差异性与非组合差异性。实验2的结果表明,5岁儿童比4岁儿童更多地表现了组合差异性的判断能力。最后以结构组合的观点讨论了这些结果。     

阅读保持的类比结构映射效应研究

探讨文章阅读过程中类比结构映射效应与共同元素效应对阅读信息保持的迁移作用,包括两个实验,实验Ｉ探讨前阅读的源文章与目标文章在结构上与命题上的共同性对目标文章信息保持的迁移效果,结果表明,前后阅读文献的结构共同目标文章的保持有显著的促进作用,命题共同的促进作用不显著,实验２进一步探讨在源文章与目标文章结构或命题有共同性的情况下,提示与否对目标文章的信息保持效果的影响作用,结果证明,有两种情况下,提示     

类似性比较对3～5岁儿童内隐推理的影响

本研究以三个实验探讨了3～5岁儿童词汇学习的内隐推理过程。实验1首先让被试者看一个熟悉物体的标准图片,分别以熟悉的或者不熟悉的名词命名,然后要求从两个选项中选择一个图片与标准图片匹配。结果表明3～4岁儿童可以不熟悉名词完成词汇扩展作业,但是只有5岁儿童可以熟悉名词完成词汇扩展作业,这表明5岁儿童可能有一个内隐推理加工过程。实验2以不熟悉物体作为标准图片,以熟悉名词与指代词分别作为指导语进一步测试5岁儿童的内隐推理过程,结果表明这个年龄阶段儿童的类概念形成有一种自上而下加工的内隐推理过程。实验3呈现基本概念的图片检验什么因素影响3～5岁儿童词汇学习的内隐推理过程,结果表明在类似性比较条件下与3～4岁儿童相比,5岁儿童更加明显地表现了内隐推理的加工过程。最后以类似性理论讨论了本研究的结果。     

文章阅读对写作的结构映射迁移的实验研究

探讨从阅读到写作过程中所阅读文章的结构对写作的迁移效果.包括两个实验.实验1探讨先前阅读的文章结构对写作的迁移效果,结果表明,先前阅读文章的结构对写作有迁移作用,阅读结构相同的文章篇数越多,对写作的迁移效果越明显;阅读两篇结构不同的文章,写作时易受后一篇文章结构的影响.实验2探讨在有无提示条件下,阅读文章的结构对不同年级学生的写作的迁移效果,结果表明,是否有提示对高年级影响不显着,而对低年级影响非常显着.本研究证明,文章阅读领域也存在着Gentner的类比结构映射效应,源文章结构越清晰,被试把握文章结构的能力越强,这种类比结构迁移的效应就越明显.     

4～5岁儿童一一对应任务中的比例效应

一一对应和数量比较是幼儿数概念发展的两个重要方面。在本研究中．40名4岁和39名5岁的儿童分别完成了不同比例数量的一一对应任务和数量比较任务。结果表明：（1）两种实验任务下均出现比例效应．说明儿童在解决一一对应问题时,仍然用数量比较的方法来进行判断;（2）任务类型的主效应显著,一一对应任务下的正确率要显著低于数量比较任务下的正确率;（3）知觉线索更多地影响数量比较任务。     

类比推理研究的有关理论

本文比较系统地论述了国外两个重要的类比推理理论：结构映射理论与实用理论。结构映射理论涉及透明度原理和系统性原理。实用理论涉及检索过程、映射过程和归纳过程。     

4～6岁儿童直接推理能力及策略的实验研究

采用定量与定性相结合的研究方法,对4－6岁儿童的直接推理能力进行了实验研究,结果表明：（1）学前儿童萌发了评议条件下的直接推理能力,但年龄发展效应并不明显;（2）对于学前儿童而言,否定前提下的直接推理并不比肯定前提的难。但是,如果进行了反义词的转换,同样的任务,却增加了肯定前提下直接推理的任务难度,而对否定前提下的直接堆理没有影响;（3）学前儿童在直接推理时多种策略并存,随着年龄的增长,有效策略的生成能力有了明显的提高,但有效策略的使用能力并没有与有效策略的生成能力同步发展,而是表现为落后的趋势。     

3～5岁儿童表面与结构相似性类比推理的实验研究

采用经典类比推理问题对3~5岁儿童表面相似性与结构相似性类比推理能力进行了实验研究。结果发现:(1)表面相似性与结构相似性对儿童解决类比问题的影响不同。一般来说,前者更有利于3~5岁儿童类比问题的解决;(2)儿童解决表面相似性与结构相似性类比问题的能力随年龄增长而发展,但发展趋势不同。在表面相似性问题方面,4岁以前发展较慢,而4岁以后的发展较快;在结构相似性问题方面,4岁以前发展较快,而4岁以后的发展较慢。4岁是儿童解决类比推理问题能力的转折点;(3)在本实验条件下,工作记忆负荷对儿童解决表面相似性类比问题与结构相似性类比问题的影响不显著;(4)类比映射关系提示能促进儿童解决两类类比问题,但对不同年龄儿童的作用是非线性的。     

面孔情绪下3～8岁儿童时距知觉的实验研究

新近研究结合日趋成熟的标量计时模型及神经学相关依据提出,情绪诱发的生理唤醒会加长主观时距,而注意唤醒会缩短主观时距,且各自有不同的发生特点。本研究选取3、5、8岁被试,系统探讨了800～3200ms范围内,儿童在高兴和生气两种面孔表情刺激下的时距知觉特点,并以中性面孔表情作为参照。研究发现:(1)3～8岁儿童都已具备明显的时距知觉,但时间敏感度随年龄的增加而提高;(2)3～8岁儿童时距判断均会受到情绪的干扰,情绪刺激下的主观时距长于中性刺激下的主观时距;(3)3～8岁儿童生气表情下的主观时距长于高兴表情下的主观时距,生理唤醒效应作用更为明显。     

Systematicity and Surface Similarity in the Development of Analogy

This research investigates the development of analogy: In particular, we wish to study the development of systematicity in analogy. Systematicity refers to the mapping of systems of mutually constraining relations, such as causal chains or chains of implication. A preference for systematic mappings is a central aspect of analogical processing in adults (Gentner, 1980, 1983). This research asks two questions: Does systematicity make analogical mapping easier? And, if so, when, developmentally, do children become able to utilize systematicity? Children aged 5–7 and 8–10 acted out stories with toy characters. Then they were asked to act out the same stories with new characters. Two variables were manipulated: systematicity, or the degree of explicit causal structure in the original stories, and the transparency of the object-mappings. Transparency was manipulated by varying the similarity between the original characters and the corresponding new characters: it was included in order to vary the difficulty of the transfer task. If children can utilize systematicity, then their transfer accuracy should be greater for systematic stories. The results show: (1) As expected, transparency strongly influenced transfer accuracy (for both age groups, transfer accuracy dropped sharply as the object correspondences became less transparent); and (2) for the older group, there was also a strong effect of systematicity and an interaction between the two variables. Given a systematic story, 9-year-olds could transfer it accurately regardless of the transparency of the object correspondence.     

Systematicity: The Nature of Science

This paper addresses the question of what the nature of science is. I will first make a few preliminary historical and systematic remarks. Next, I shall give an answer to the question that has to be qualified, clarified and justified. Finally, I will compare my answer with alternative answers and draw consequences for the demarcation problem.     

儿童同伴尊重的发展及社交领导性的影响: 三年追踪

对285名小学三年级和四年级儿童进行了连续三年的追踪调查,分析了儿童同伴尊重发展趋势及其在群体间的差异,探讨了社交领导性在儿童同伴尊重发展中的预测作用。结果表明：（1）童年中后期儿童与同伴之间的获得尊重与表现尊重具有显著增长趋势;（2）三年间女孩的表现尊重均高于男孩但增长速度无差异;女孩的获得尊重增长速度高于男孩;（3）儿童的社交领导性能够显著正向预测儿童同伴尊重的发展趋势。     

The Causal Organisation of Emotional Knowledge: A Developmental Study

Abstract

Using a theory of emotional understanding, the basis for distinguishing among happiness, anger, and sadness was investigated. Three and six-year-old children and adults predicted and explained people's emotional responses to different types of events. The events varied as to whether a person's goal was to attain or to avoid a state, whether the goal was achieved or not, who or what was responsible for success or failure, and whether the outcome was intentional or accidental. For all groups, the attainment and maintenance of goals was the primary focus of explanations for emotions and for the plans that followed emotions. A distinct set of features was used to infer and explain happiness as opposed to anger and sadness. Happiness was elicited by goal success and was followed by plans to maintain or enjoy current goal states. Anger and sadness were elicited by goal failure and were followed by plans to reinstate, replace, or forfeit goals. Anger occurred more frequently than sadness when an aversive rather than a loss state occurred, when an animate agent rather than a natural event caused a negative outcome, and when attention was focused on the cause rather than the consequence of goal failure. Two dimensions associated with anger changed as a function of age. First grade children, and adults were more likely than preschool children to predict anger in response to intentional harm, and their explanations for anger were more likely to refer to the agent or cause of goal failure. For all age groups, however, the majority of subjects responded to aversive situations with anger responses, independent of the causal conditions that produced the aversive state. The results therefore indicate that anger can be produced without intentional harm, but that intentional harm becomes an important dimension in attributing anger, especially as a function of development.     

类比推理在研制茎突切除钳中的应用

研制茎突切除钳,需要解决器械剪切力克服有关部件相互作用产生摩擦阻力的关键问题.依据新器械与弯头喉钳具有相似结构特征,采用类比方法推测新器械如同喉钳可克服摩擦阻力形成切除效应.类比结论的可靠程度取决于新、旧两器械之间存在共同的功能属性,新器械的制作和应用表明"思维的真实"与"现实的真实"同一.     

类比推理在研制茎突切除钳中的应用

研制茎突切除钳,需要解决器械剪切力克服有关部件相互作用产生摩擦阻力的关键问题。依据新器械与弯头喉钳具有相似结构特征,采用类比方法推测新器械如同喉钳可克服摩擦阻力形成切除效应。类比结论的可靠程度取决于新、旧两器械之间存在共同的功能属性,新器械的制作和应用表明“思维的真实”与“现实的真实”同一。     

汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童心理机制的初步研究

本研究采用真假字判断与同音判断任务考察了汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的心理机制。结果显示,对于真假字判断任务,阅读障碍儿童与正常儿童没有显著差异,而在同音判断任务中表现出了显著差异。本研究说明汉语阅读障碍儿童在整体字形表征方面是正常的,同时还支持了阅读障碍为语音表征缺陷的观点。     

On Silencing and Systematicity: The Challenge of the Drowning Case

Silencing is a speech‐related harm. We here focus on one particular account of silencing offered by Jennifer Hornsby and Rae Langton. According to this account, silencing is systematically generated, illocutionary‐communicative failure (of a very specific sort). We here raise an apparent challenge to that account. In particular, we offer an example—the drowning case—that meets these conditions of silencing but does not intuitively seem to be an instance of it. First, we explore several conditions one might add to the Hornsby‐Langton account, but we argue that none are satisfactory. Then, we further explore the systematicity condition, which is insufficiently characterized in the current literature. Although we explore several promising ways to further characterize this condition, we ultimately conclude that more work needs to be done. Consequently, because this systematicity condition is under‐specified, the Hornsby‐Langton account of silencing is incomplete.     

A Szondi Study of Developmental and Cultural Factors in Personality: The Seven-Year-Old

Children's concepts of various social roles were examined in a task that required the child to indicate the similarity of two occupants of common social roles. Each occupant in the pair was described differently in terms of behaviors appropriate for a particular role. Children in the first, third, and sixth grades were studied. Findings indicated that children in the youngest group held role concepts based primarily on concrete actions, while role concepts of the older two groups were based on more abstract, general role functions. In addition, there is some suggestion that the level of role conceptualization is related to the relevance of the particular role.