The correlational validity of IQ as a function of ethnicity and desegregation

IQ tests were viewed solely as predictors in this investigation. It was printed out that there is little or no data to support the prevalent assumptions that IQ tests predict school performance equally well for different ethnic groups and/or in a desegregated school setting. Moreover, test users and publishers often mistakenly imply or assume that the correlational validity for a total ethnically heterogeneous population applies in equal magnitude to the respective ethnic subgroups of that population. An investigation to provide evidence relevant to these assumptions was conducted using all the pupils in grade K-3 in Berkeley, California—the first large district to voluntarily desegregate its schools completely.

The results revealed equal but very low within-ethnic-group correlations between IQ and achievement measures administered concurrently prior to desegregation and for tests administered one and two years following desegregation. The correlations between IQ and the criteria for the ethnic groups were, as expected, significantly lower than the total population correlation. The practical implications of these findings of generally poor predictability were discussed.     

Ethnic diversity and cohesion in interdependent youth sport contexts

Team sports are a group environment in which individuals from various backgrounds often come together in pursuit of a common goal. Building on the findings of recent research that examined the effects of ethnic diversity in professional and intercollegiate sport contexts, we examined the association between ethnic diversity and youth athletes' perceptions of cohesion in interdependent sport teams (e.g., soccer), and tested ethnic identity as a moderator of this relationship. Multilevel analysis of data from 272 youth athletes nested within 24 teams revealed that ethnic diversity negatively predicted both task and social dimensions of cohesion, but ethnic identity did not emerge as a moderating variable. These findings are divergent from recent work that examined similar relationships in intercollegiate contexts. This highlights the complexity, and the importance, of examining the effects of ethnic diversity on team functioning-oriented variables at different levels of sport competition. Although replication studies are necessary to understand the reliability of the current findings, our study provides insight into the effects of ethnic diversity in youth sport and emphasizes pertinent developmental processes (e.g., identity formation) that scholars should take into consideration in future research.     

基于IPO模型的团队多样性-冲突-绩效权变模型的元分析

本文建立基于IPO模型的团队多样性-冲突-绩效的权变模型。通过对国内外的112篇实证文章（n=9263）进行元分析,本文定量地梳理近年来团队多样性-团队冲突-团队绩效之间关系的研究文献,并重点考察团队冲突与团队绩效之间的调节变量。元分析结果发现：团队深层多样性是引起团队冲突的重要因素,表层多样性并不会显著增加团队冲突;与美国的研究不同,中国情境下任务冲突将显著降低团队绩效;被试类型、回收率、团队规模和团队冲突的不对称感知等变量调节团队冲突与团队绩效之间的关系。     

Who uses base rates andP(D/∼H)? An analysis of individual differences

In two experiments, involving over 900 subjects, we examined the cognitive correlates of the tendency to viewP(D/～H) and base rate information as relevant to probability assessment. We found that individuals who viewedP(D/～H) as relevant in a selection task and who used it to make the proper Bayesian adjustment in a probability assessment task scored higher on tests of cognitive ability and were better deductive and inductive reasoners. They were less biased by prior beliefs and more datadriven on a covariation assessment task. In contrast, individuals who thought that base rates were relevant did not display better reasoning skill or higher cognitive ability. Our results parallel disputes about the normative status of various components of the Bayesian formula in interesting ways. It is argued that patterns of covariance among reasoning tasks may have implications for inferences about what individuals are trying to optimize in a rational analysis (J. R. Anderson, 1990, 1991).     

Humble Beginnings: Current Trends,State Perspectives,and Hallmarks of Humility

After decades of neglect, research in humility is finally turning a corner. Within the past few years, investigators have articulated two promising strategies to overcome methodological concerns – namely, using personality judgments and designing humility “stress tests” to elicit humility‐relevant behavior. We also highlight an alternative perspective of humility that has not yet gained much attention: the investigation of humility as a state, which helps to understand what humility actually is, how it functions, and its variability within individuals over time. To improve the observation of humility‐relevant behavior, we propose five intrapersonal and interpersonal hallmarks of humility that have strong theoretical support, can distinguish between humility's conceptual foils of narcissism and low self‐esteem, and provide broad theoretical ties between ongoing research endeavors: A secure, accepting identity, freedom from distortion, openness to new information, other‐focus, and egalitarian beliefs. Finally, to increase methodological rigor, we recommend using a combination of self‐reports and other‐reports and employing multiple raters with demonstrated inter‐rater reliability in validation studies.     

The relationship between campus diversity, students' ethnic identity and college adjustment: a qualitative study

The present study was a qualitative exploration into the meaning of ethnic identity and its association with college adjustment in students attending ethnically diverse university campuses. The sample consisted of 103 participants recruited from 2 ethnically diverse universities in southern California. A constant comparative analysis of the interview data revealed 9 themes as being relevant to students' experiences of ethnicity within a multiethnic campus that reflect both the positive aspects and the negative aspects associated with campus diversity. Students' experiences with campus diversity varied by ethnic background and type of institution attended, as did the overall frequencies of reported positive and negative themes associated with diversity. The implications of these findings for ethnic identity, campus climate, and interethnic relations are discussed.     

Disability, race/ethnicity and gender: themes of cultural oppression, acts of individual resistance

Community psychologists have called for research on human diversity and interactions between individuals and society with a focus on oppression. This study examines learning disabilities as they co-occur with other sociopolitical minority statuses. We examined dominant cultural narratives of and individual responses to learning disability, race/ethnicity and gender identified by low-income men and women of color with learning disabilities. Our qualitative analysis identified cultural narratives that suggest that: (1a) individuals with learning disabilities are perceived as having an illegitimate impairment and being of lower intellectual ability and unworthy; (1b) having an invisible disability facilitates passing as nondisabled, thereby lessening disability discrimination from within racial/ethnic groups; (1c) having a learning disability detracts from positive gender expectations and exacerbates negative ones; and (1d) gender and racial/ethnic narratives are relevant for individuals with learning disabilities. Our analysis also identified two overarching individual acts of resistance used to thwart internalization of oppressive cultural narratives: (2a) removing self from oppressive environments and (2b) reframing dominant cultural narratives (including discounting the validity of negative messages, using negative narratives for motivation, and engaging in positive self-talk). We discuss findings in relation to extant research and theory and consider implications for research, theory, and practice.     

Working Memory and Cognitive Skills in Individuals with Down Syndrome

This work is aimed at analyzing working memory (WM) components and their relationships with other cognitive processes in individuals with Down syndrome (DS). Particular attention is given to examine whether a verbal WM deficit is due to difficulties in verbal abilities often showed by individuals with DS, or whether it is a deficit per se. A group of 20 individuals with DS was compared to a group of 20 typically developing (TD) children matched on vocabulary comprehension and to a group of 20 TD children matched on general verbal intelligence. The groups received a battery of 3 verbal and 3 visuospatial WM tasks requiring different degrees of control, and tests assessing verbal abilities (WPPSI verbal scale, PPVT), nonverbal skills (WPPSI performance scale), and logical thinking (LO). The results revealed that individuals with DS have deficits in both central executive (control) and verbal components of the WM system, and the latter one is independent of the general verbal abilities deficit. The data suggest that the development of central executive proceeds at a slower rate in individuals with DS and differently from TD children with comparable verbal abilities. The performance of individuals with DS on high-control WM tasks requires additional general resources that are strictly linked to intelligence.     

The relationship among ethnic identity, psychological well-being, and intergroup competence: an investigation of two biracial groups

This study examined the ethnic identification, psychological well-being, and intergroup competence of biracial individuals. Using a self-identification measure, the authors explored whether biracial individuals would identify with one, both, or none of their ethnic heritages and the implications of these orientations on psychological well-being and intergroup competence. Sixty-six Black/White and Asian/White individuals were included. Not differing between the 2 biracial groups, results revealed that participants were most likely to be biculturally identified, followed by minority identified and then nonidentified. Furthermore, psychological well-being and intergroup anxiety varied as a function of identity. Suggestions for future research with biracial identity are discussed.     

Grammatical comprehension in older adults, both normal and with cognitive impairment: a comparative study based on discriminant and multidimensional scaling techniques

Memory and language tests are usually used to differentiate healthy elderly individuals and individuals with cognitive impairment (CI). In the latter case, there are usually no tests to assess grammatical comprehension. The aim of this paper is to explore the differences in grammatical comprehension between healthy older adults and older adults with CI, identifying the sentences that best discriminate these groups, as well as the underlying dimensions that are most relevant to the individuals. Participants were 71 elderly people, divided into two groups according to their performance on the Spanish version of the Mini Mental State Exam: normal and CI. All were given a comprehension test that included 12 kinds of sentence structures. The CI group performed significantly worse than healthy elderly group. The greatest differences were observed in the sentences adjusted to canonical order in Spanish. The sentences with higher weights in the discriminant function were the ones adjusted to the one-proposition canonical order. Propositional density was the most salient dimension in both groups. Individuals with CI had difficulty assigning thematic roles to constituents, even when it could be done by following a strategy based on the linear order of the roles.     

Closing the Solidarity Gap? How Ethnic Diversity Alters Who We Are Willing to Support

Citizens tend to be more solidary with ethnic ingroup members than ethnic outgroup members. As a result, increasing ethnic diversity is often found to impede solidarity. Although this perspective is well established, I present an alternative argument: Under circumstances that foster intergroup contact, increasing diversity promotes, rather than impedes, intergroup solidarity. To test this argument, I combine a survey experiment fielded among Danish students with quasi-random observational data on students' classroom ethnic composition. I find that ethnic-majority adolescents are on average more willing to support ethnic-majority recipients than immigrant and ethnic-minority recipients. Yet, although increasing diversity does not moderate the majority-minority solidarity gap, increasing diversity diminishes and erases the majority-immigrant solidarity gap. As further shown, one explanation is that immigrants in particular face strong stereotypes of being lazy and that ethnic diversity reduces this specific stereotype. These findings suggest that immigration and solidarity need not be incompatible. Under certain circumstances, ethnic diversity at worst leaves intergroup solidarity unaltered and at best improves such solidarity.     

How to measure diversity when you must

Racial/ethnic diversity has become an increasingly important variable in the social sciences. Research from multiple disciplines consistently demonstrates the tremendous impact of ethnic diversity on individuals and organizations. Investigators use a variety of measures, and their choices can affect the conclusions that can be drawn and limit the ability to compare and generalize results across studies effectively. The current article reviews 3 popular approaches to the measurement of diversity: the simplistic majority-minority approach and 2 multiple categories variants, the generalized variance and the lesser used entropy statistic. We discuss the properties of each approach and reject the majority-minority approach. We provide 5 examples using the generalized variance and entropy statistics and illustrate their versatility and flexibility. We urge investigators to adopt these multicategory measures and to use our discussion to determine which measure of diversity is most appropriate given the nature of one's data set and research question.     

Test anxiety,evaluative stress,and susceptibility to distraction from threat

Examinations are perhaps one of the main methods of assessment in education. Unfortunately, there are some individuals who are so fearful of such events that performance is impaired. Test anxiety is believed to be the trait that predisposes individuals to react negatively to examinations and tests. One way in which it is believed that test anxiety affects performance is by increasing susceptibility to distraction from task‐irrelevant material. However, few studies have directly investigated this impairment. An experiment was therefore conducted to investigate susceptibility to distraction in high and low test‐anxious students. The task used was based on one developed by Mathews, May, Mogg and Eysenck (1990), which distinguishes between focused attention and selective search. In order to determine whether a specific susceptibility to distraction exists, the distractors were varied in terms of valence and relevance to examinations. Since test anxiety is a situation‐specific trait, an evaluation‐related stressor was used to trigger test‐anxious reactions. A specific susceptibility to distraction from threat was found amongst high test‐anxious participants who received the evaluation‐related stressor. However, this effect was only found when participants were using focused attention. This suggests that the disturbed performance often found to be associated with test anxiety might be due to an inability to ignore threatening material when attempting to focus attentional resources. These results are discussed in light of current theories of test anxiety and implications for educational practice. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Slicing White Bre(a)d: Racial Identities,Recipes, and Italian-American Women

This article focuses on Italian-American women and on how they construct, understand, and maintain their ethnic identity in relation to Whiteness and White privilege. Since language cannot serve as symbol for these women because speaking Italian was often forbidden in their homes, or spoken only between adults in covert communications, they often must cling to other symbols of Italianness in order to preserve their sense of gendered ethnic identities. I argue that one such symbol is food, wherein participants manipulate recipes and use food to navigate and negotiate being both Italian and American, Whiteness, femininity, and social class. Implications for therapy about how we understand our multiple identities in relation to others as part of larger systems of power and privilege are explored.     

Applicant Reactions to Selection Procedures: An Updated Model and Meta-Analysis

An updated theoretical model of applicant reactions to selection procedures is proposed and tested using meta-analysis. Results from 86 independent samples  ( N = 48,750)  indicated that applicants who hold positive perceptions about selection are more likely to view the organization favorably and report stronger intentions to accept job offers and recommend the employer to others. Applicant perceptions were positively correlated with actual and perceived performance on selection tools and with self-perceptions. The average correlation between applicant perceptions and gender, age, and ethnic background was near zero. Face validity and perceived predictive validity were strong predictors of many applicant perceptions including procedural justice, distributive justice, attitudes towards tests, and attitudes towards selection. Interviews and work samples were perceived more favorably than cognitive ability tests, which were perceived more favorably than personality inventories, honesty tests, biodata, and graphology. The discussion identifies remaining theoretical and methodological issues as well as directions for future research.     

Classroom ethnic diversity,teacher support,and peer victimization: Evidence from four European countries

We investigated how classroom ethnic diversity is associated with peer victimization, effects of ethnic minority/majority status, and if individual teacher support can buffer potentially negative effects of ethnic diversity. Using two theoretical perspectives (balance of power, ethnic competition), we hypothesized that (1) victimization is more prevalent at intermediate ethnic diversity and less prevalent at lower and higher ethnic diversity, (2) this curvilinear link is stronger for ethnic majority than minority students, and (3) peer victimization at intermediate levels of ethnic diversity is lower when teacher support is high. We conducted multilevel analyses based on the first wave of the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Survey in Four European Countries (CILS4EU). The analytical sample included 17,882 students, nested in 882 classrooms. Although our hypotheses received no support, the findings showed that diversity was linked to less victimization for ethnic minority student. Teacher support was linked to less victimization for ethnic minority students at every level of classroom diversity but especially when diversity was low and to less victimization for ethnic majority students in classrooms with intermediate to high ethnic diversity. We discuss our findings in light the theoretical approaches and underscore the role of teachers as a protective resource.     

Attentional capture and inattentional blindness

Although we intuitively believe that salient or distinctive objects will capture our attention, surprisingly often they do not. For example, drivers may fail to notice another car when trying to turn or a person may fail to see a friend in a cinema when looking for an empty seat, even if the friend is waving. The study of attentional capture has focused primarily on measuring the effect of an irrelevant stimulus on task performance. In essence, these studies explore how well observers can ignore something they expect but know to be irrelevant. By contrast, the real-world examples above raise a different question: how likely are subjects to notice something salient and potentially relevant that they do not expect? Recently, several new paradigms exploring this question have found that, quite often, unexpected objects fail to capture attention, a phenomenon known as 'inattentional blindness'. This review considers evidence for the effects of irrelevant features both on performance ('implicit attentional capture') and on awareness ('explicit attentional capture'). Taken together, traditional studies of implicit attentional capture and recent studies of inattentional blindness provide a more complete understanding of the varieties of attentional capture, both in the laboratory and in the real world.     

Gathering Diverse Perspectives to Tackle “Wicked Problems”: Racial/Ethnic Disproportionality in Educational Placement

Among students receiving behavioral health and special education services, racial/ethnic minority students are consistently overrepresented in settings separate from general classrooms. Once separated, many young people struggle to improve academically and face significant difficulty upon trying to return to a general education setting. Given the complex, ongoing, and multifaceted nature of this challenge, racial/ethnic disproportionality can be identified as a “wicked problem,” for which solutions are not easily identified. Here, we describe our community-engaged research efforts, eliciting perspectives from relevant partners in an ongoing dialogue, to better integrate diverse stakeholders’ perspectives when attempting to address such disparities. We conducted focus groups and qualitative interviews with members of three stakeholder groups: community-serving organizations, individuals with lived experience of behavioral health conditions, and state-level policymakers, with a shared interest in addressing racial and ethnic disparities. Participant responses illustrated the “wickedness” of this problem and highlighted the need for additional supports for students, families, and school personnel, increased collaboration across relevant systems and agencies, and reduced barriers related to funding. Overall, this methodology bridged differing perspectives to develop, in concert with our partners, a shared language of the problem and a core set of issues to consider when seeking to effect change.