Dichoptic induction of Mccollough-type effects

If left-oblique and right-oblique black/white gratings are presented alternately to one eye, and unpatterned red and green fields are presented alternately to the other, orientation-sensitive chromatic after-effects are induced. With the colour-stimulated eye the hue usually seen on a test grating is complementary to that originally paired with its orientation, with the pattern-stimulated eye the hue is the same as that originally paired.

The experiments reported here show that: (a) the time course of decay of these chromatic after-effects (for each eye) fits approximately the same power law as that found for the normal McCollough effect; (b) analogous chromatic after-effects, opposite in the two eyes, can be dichoptically induced using pairs of stimuli other than gratings, such as dot patterns differing in magnification.

These results suggest that strongly coloured light in one eye can induce a weakly complementary bias in the colour-signalling system of the other eye, at a level peripheral to the site of the McCollough-type adaptation.     

Binocular rivalry and immediate memory

Three experiments examine features of a simple memory task on which right-handed, right eye dominant subjects have been reported to recall digits projected to the right eye more accurately than those projected simultaneously to the left eye. Superior recall by these subjects of information projected to the right eye was observed only when stimuli projected simultaneously to both eyes were seen as overlapped in the binocular percept. Under monocular presentations, accurracy of recall was not related to the eye with which stimuli were viewed. The binocular oveslap condition has a significance other than that of simply increasing the difficulty of identifying the elements in a visual display for there were no differences in accuracy of recall from each eye when overlapped stimuli were viewed monocularly. More accurate recall of right eye information appears to reflect the resolution of a conflict between inputs from each eye. The possible relation of this finding to cerebral dominance is also discussed. Order of recall in these experiments depended mainly on spatial cues provided by the experimental situation.     

视频教学中教师的眼神注视能否促进学习?

教师的眼神注视是在视频学习中重要但易被忽视的元素。以往理论存在两种对立的观点：其中准社会交往理论和社会代理理论支持教师的眼神注视促进学习; 而基于多媒体学习认知理论与认知负荷理论认为教师的眼神注视会阻碍学习效果。通过汇总以往实证研究得出如下结论：首先, 教师的眼神注视对学习效果具有小的促进效应, 即教师的眼神注视能够促进学习者的保持成绩(d_保持 = 0.41)和迁移成绩(d_迁移 = 0.39); 其次, 在主观体验上, 教师的眼神注视对准社会交往也具有小的促进效应(d_{准社会交往} = 0.35), 而教师的眼神注视对认知负荷影响十分微弱(d_认知负荷 = -0.02); 最后, 在对学习材料的注意加工上, 教师的眼神注视总体上影响比较微弱(d_注视时间 = 0.06, d_{首次注视时间} = -0.15)。未来研究需要对不同注视类型、先前知识经验、学习材料性质以及认知神经方法进一步探究。     

Changes in the visual threshold as a function of subception

In a previous paper (Dixon, 1958b) one of the authors reported an experiment which suggested that apparent changes in the threshold for one eye occur as a function of the emotionality of stimulus material presented below threshold to the other eye. The following experiment describes an attempt to investigate further the validity of this conclusion. The results are consistent with those from the previous research.     

The origin of the autokinetic effect

The effects of unbalanced fatigue of the ocular and neck musculature on the auto- kinetic effect are described. It is shown that after deviation of the eyes to an extreme position, fixation of a small light source with the eye in the central position gives rise to an immediate and pronounced autokinetic effect. This apparent movement is typically in the same meridian as that of the ocular deviation and is often, at all events at first, in the opposite direction. Similar, though less clear-cut, results are obtained after induction of unbalanced fatigue in the neck musculature. It is argued that the autokinetic effect observed under these conditions warrants treatment as a primary illusion of movement and does not involve a “framework” or standard of reference. In an appendix, a speculative model of the ocular control system and some preliminary observations are presented. It is concluded that the autokinetic effect is principally due to spontaneous minor fluctuations in the neural system which monitors the outward signals controlling eye movement.     

II Sensory feedback influences on keytapping motor tasks

Subjects were trained to tap a key continuously at a specific rate, and with a specific amount of pressure (regularity task). Performance of this task was studied under conditions of: (a) decreased auditory feedback (masking noise through earphones), (b) decreased visual feedback (tapping hand screened from view), (c) vibration (vibrators applied to forearm in order to “mask” proprioceptive feedback), (d) digital block of tapping finger, and (e) combination of all four conditions. Significant changes in rate and intensity of tapping resulted under conditions of decreased auditory feedback, vibration, and the combined condition.

In the second part of the study, the effects of different delayed sensory events on keytapping were examined. The five conditions of delayed sensory feedback were: (a) delayed auditory feedback, (b) delayed visual feedback, (c) delayed tactile feedback, (d) the first three delayed sensory events presented simultaneously, and (e) condition (d) repeated with digital block of the tapping finger.

The conditions of delayed sensory feedback did not markedly alter performance of the regularity task. The same conditions of delayed sensory feedback did, however, produce highly significant changes in the performance of a more complex pattern task. All of these delay conditions produced parallel changes in the pattern task, namely increased intensity and decreased rate of tapping. The fact that the pattern task is more disturbed by delayed sensory feedback than the regularity task suggests that temporal complexity of the task is one determinant of the degree to which it will be disturbed by a delay in sensory feedback.     

高低阅读技能聋生词汇加工的语境预测性效应特点:眼动证据

本研究考察中文聋生读者利用语境预测性信息促进词汇加工的过程特点。实验采用3（组别：高阅读技能聋生组vs.高阅读技能聋生的能力匹配健听组vs.低阅读技能聋生组）×2（句子背景对目标词的预测程度：高预测vs.低预测）混合设计。结果发现：（1）目标词的左侧词汇上,能力匹配健听组在凝视时间和总注视时间两个指标上可见语境预测性效应,两个聋生组在任何指标上均没有语境预测性效应;（2）目标词上,能力匹配健听组在首次注视时间、凝视时间和总注视时间三项指标上均可见显著的语境预测性效应,高阅读技能聋生组仅在总注视上可见语境预测性效应,低阅读技能聋生的任何眼动指标均没有语境预测性效应。由此可见,聋生在利用语境预测性促进词汇加工方面与健听读者有所差异;相对于低阅读技能聋生,高阅读技能聋生读者识别词汇时能更多地利用语境预测性信息。     

Eye movements and processing stages in reading: relative contribution of visual,lexical, and contextual factors

The independent and the combined influence of word length, word frequency, and contextual predictability on eye movements in reading was examined across processing stages under two priming-context conditions. Length, frequency, and predictability were used as predictors in multiple regression analyses, with parafoveal, early, late, and spillover eye movement measures as the dependent variables. There were specific effects of: (a) length, both on where to look (how likely a word was fixated and in which location) and how long to fixate, across all processing stages; (b) frequency, on how long to fixate a word, but not on where to look, at an early processing stage; and (c) predictability, both on how likely a word was fixated and for how long, in late processing stages. The source of influence for predictability was related to global rather than to local contextual priming. The contribution of word length was independent of contextual source. These results are relevant to determine both the time course of the influence of visual, lexical, and contextual factors on eye movements in reading, and which main component of eye movements, that is, location or duration, is affected.     

Directed forgetting in the list method affects recognition memory for source

The effects of list-method directed forgetting on recognition memory were explored. In Experiment 1 (N = 40), observers were instructed to remember words and their type-cases; in Experiment 2 (N = 80), the instruction was to remember words and their colours. Two lists of 10 words were presented; after the first list, half of the observers (forget) were instructed to forget that list, and the other half (remember) were not given the forget instruction. Recognition of items (words) as well as source (encoding list + case/colour) was measured for forget and remember observers. The forget instruction affected case/colour memory more consistently than item and list memory; a multinomial analysis indicated that source information was affected by the forget instructions. The results indicated that recognition of source information may be a more sensitive indicator of forgetting than recognition of items.     

Further experiments on movement masking

Voluntary attention to one of two static objects in the peripheral field of one eye makes this object more liable to masking by a moving object in the corresponding area of the field of the other eye (Experiment 1).

Positive after images (and probably negative after images) are subject to (binocular) movement masking (Experiment 2).

Movement masking can occur in the field of either eye, but with the displays so far tried the inhibitory influence of a moving object is less in the field of the eye to which it is shown than in the field of the other eye (Experiment 3).     

Handedness, eye-dominance, and immediate memory

Twenty male university students varying in handedness and eye-dominance recalled conventional and unconventional digits under two conditions: (1) when the same type of digit was projected simultaneously to each eye, and (2) when a different type of digit was projected simultaneously to each eye.

Forty trials were given, each consisting of four pairs of digits with a different numeral projected to each eye. Performance was analysed in terms of percentage recalled correctly and time of onset of each response.

Right eye-dominant groups, particularly a right handed and right eye-dominant group, were superior in both accuracy of recall and speed of response to left eye-dominant groups. Least able in recall were left handed, left eye-dominant subjects. Superiority of right eye-dominant groups was especially marked when a different type of digit was projected to each eye.

In accord with results reported by Broadbent for the ears (1956, 1957), other results suggest it is possible for the eyes to operate simultaneously as independent information sources. However, unlike the case for audition, present subjects did not report all information from one eye before that from the other, but gave it in pairs. It seems that the capacity of the eyes to function independently depended upon eye-dominance and handedness, while serial ordering of responses reflected imposition of an habitual response organization.     

Recall of digits projected to temporal and nasal hemi-retinas

Fourteen right-handed, right eye dominant subjects recalled digits when different ones were projected simultaneously to either temporal or nasal retinas. The principal findings were: (a) Recall of digits projected to nasal retinas was significantly better than when projected to temporal retinas; (b) information projected to the right eye was recalled significantly better than that projected to the left eye. It is shown that the relative ineffectiveness of the recall of input from the non-dominant eye can be attributed almost wholly to the relative inefficient recall of digits projected to the left temporal retina.     

Reaction time to threat stimuli in panic disorder and social phobia

Two studies assessed response time among clinically anxious subjects and normal controls when presented with threat, positive and neutral stimuli under perceptual (lexical decision) and semantic (category decision) task conditions. In Study 1, panic disorder subjects' (n = 14) performance was compared to that of matched normal controls (n = 14) while in Study 2 social phobic subjects (n = 24) were compared to matched normal controls (n = 24). Relative to matched normal controls, panic disorder subjects but not social phobics tended to show greater slowing in performance on the more cognitively complex (category) task. A second finding, consistent across both studies was that, compared to the normal control groups, both panic and social phobic groups showed significantly slowed responses to threat words in both the perceptual and semantic tasks. Such findings are directly counter to the predictions of a mood congruence hypothesis. This apparent contradiction is resolved by a review of the literature which indicates that mood-related facilitation effects are obtained only in tasks which tap awareness of threat information rather than speed of response. It is suggested that while anxiety may produce enhanced awareness of threat, it may inhibit responsiveness to it. The results of these studies are seen as consistent with ethological theories of inhibited motoric responses under certain threat conditions. Furthermore, the findings suggest that caution is indicated in interpreting slowed reaction time to threat stimuli in tasks such as the Stroop color naming task as purely the result of attentional processes.     

寻求反馈能改善绩效吗?——反馈寻求行为与个体绩效关系的元分析

利用元分析方法探讨反馈寻求行为(FSB)与个体绩效的关系以明确其能否改善个体绩效。共有62篇实证研究纳入元分析, 被试总人数达15141人。结果表明：反馈寻求行为与个体绩效呈中等程度正相关(r = 0.329), 且与创新绩效的关系(r = 0.409)强于关系绩效(r = 0.302)和任务绩效(r = 0.258); 询问式反馈寻求行为(Inquiry FSB)与个体绩效及其分维度绩效的关系均强于监控式反馈寻求行为(Monitoring FSB)。文化背景和数据收集方式调节了反馈寻求行为与个体绩效的关系, 该关系在东亚文化背景下(r = 0.393)和截面同源数据中(r = 0.433)最强, 且在纵向配对数据中仍显著正相关(r = 0.154), 充分说明反馈寻求行为能改善个体绩效; 反馈寻求行为的测量工具、反馈源、非自评绩效的主客观性和被试类型的调节效应不显著。研究结果为反馈寻求行为对个体绩效的预测提供了较精确的估计, 并为反馈寻求行为的后续研究指引了方向。     

Competition during the processing of quantifier scope ambiguities: evidence from eye movements during reading

We investigated the processing of sentences containing a quantifier scope ambiguity, such as Kelly showed a photo to each critic, which is ambiguous between the indefinite phrase (a photo) having one or many referents. Ambiguity resolution requires the computation of relative quantifier scope, with either a photo or each critic taking wide scope, thereby determining the number of referents. Using eye tracking, we established that multiple factors, including the grammatical function and surface linear order of quantified phrases, along with their lexical characteristics, interact during the processing of relative quantifier scope, with conflict between factors incurring a processing cost. We discuss the results in terms of theoretical accounts attributing sentence-processing difficulty to either reanalysis (e.g., Fodor, 1982) or competition between rival analyses (e.g., Kurtzman & MacDonald, 1993).     

‘Random’ saccadic eye movements during verbal-linguistic and visual-imaginal tasks

Previous research has suggested that questions eliciting visual imagery are associated with lower rates of saccadic eye movements as compared to questions eliciting verbal processes. Two experiments reported here examined the roles of external visual stimulation and speech output in this effect. In both experiments, questions designed to elicit verbal-linguistic or visual-imaginal processing, and which required either syntactically complex or simple responses, were administered while eye movements were recorded by electrooculography. In experiment 1, 42 subjects responded while viewing either the interviewer's face or a gray oval on a video monitor. Imaginal questions elicited a lower rate of eye movements than did verbal questions regardless of the display on the monitor. In experiment 2, 17 subjects responded in conditions of light and darkness. Imaginal questions elicited lower rates of eye movements in both light and dark. Neither cognitive mode nor speech output requirements interacted with stimulus conditions in either experiment. The failure of visual conditions to influence the verbal-imaginal difference in eye movement rate is viewed as inconsistent with a visual interference interpretation of the relationship of eye movements to cognitive activity. Alternate interpretations are discussed.     

Preferred tempo in the learning of a gross cyclical action

Seventy-five subjects, randomly assigned to one of five training conditions, were required to learn to make large-amplitude, high-tempo, fluent movements on a so-called ski-simulator over a period of four days. Subjects trained under different tempo conditions. In four of the conditions the tempo was prescribed (“preferred”, high, low, or increasing), augmented feedback being provided to enable subjects to stay on “target”. “Preferred” tempo was based on the weight of the subject and was derived from a regression equation based on previous empirical research. In a fifth condition, subjects trained on “discovery learning” principles, i.e. without the tempo being prescribed. The results obtained on the three parameters (amplitude, frequency, and fluency) during the daily test sessions (in which the tempo was not prescribed) formed the data for the analyses.

A learning effect was apparent on all three parameters over the four-day training period. Subjects who trained under the high or the low prescribed tempos, however, were shown to produce significantly smaller amplitude movements than subjects who trained under the other three conditions. Training under the low-tempo condition was also shown to have disadvantageous effects on the parameters tempo and fluency. It was concluded that, for these kinds of action, training at a high or a low tempo—and particularly the latter—has undesirable effects. Such disadvantageous effects, however, were shown to be avoidable if training is begun with the “preferred” tempo of the subject and increased successively by 7% over days.     

The effect of perceived distance on induced movement

The magnitude of induced movement was measured as a function of the perceived depth between the test object and the plane of the induction object, with this perceived depth produced by stereoscopic cues. Three experiments were conducted. In each experiment, the induction object (a frame of constant physical size) was positioned at one of three distances with the test object (a point of light) placed successively at each of the three distances. Predictions of the magnitude of induction as a function of the depth separation of the test and induction object were made from the subject-relative and object-relative hypotheses of induced motion. It was expected, however, that neither of these hypotheses would predict the results independently of a factor described in the adjacency principle. This principle states that the effectiveness of whatever cues or processes determine the induced movement will decrease with increased depth between the test and induction object. The data indicate that the adjacency principle must be considered in explaining the results. The subject-relative rather than object-relative hypothesis as modified by the adjacency principle was most successful in predicting the results. Control conditions in which the frame was stationary and the point of light was physically moving were also used. Despite the fact that the relative displacement of the objects on the eye in the experimental and control conditions were the same, the results indicate that O could distinguish between these two kinds of conditions. Although the apparent movement was greater in the control conditions than in the experimental conditions, the reverse is true if the total perceived movement of the test and induction object are considered together.     

The effect of moving and static trans-scleral illumination of visual afterimages

The inside of the eye was illuminated by shining a small light through the upper eyelid and the sclera. After viewing a bright light flash, Ss closed their eyes and reported the duration of the afterimage under the following conditions: the light on and moving across the S’s eyelid (moving trans-scleral illumination), the light on but stationary (static trans-scleral illumination), and two corresponding control conditions in which the light was turned off (darkness). Results indicate that when the trans-scleral light is moving, afterimages are seen clearly for periods of approximately the same duration as those seen in complete darkness. However, when the trans-scleral illumination is stationary, the duration of the afterimages is significantly reduced. These results are compatible with other afterimage data that suggest that changes within the field after initial stimulation are needed to prolong afterimages.     

Permission schemas and the selection task

Cheng and Holyoak's abstract permission schema version of Wason's selection task and the standard abstract version of the task were examined in two experiments, each a factorial design with type of problem (permission vs. standard), presence or absence of a checking context, explicit or implicit negatives on the not-p and not-q cards, and presence or absence of a rule clarification statement as factors. The original permission problem violation-type instruction was employed in Experiment 1, and Margolis's not-p and not-q violation instruction (Griggs & Jackson, 1990) was used in Experiment 2. Subjects were 640 university undergraduates, with each subject solving only one problem. The major findings for permission tasks were: (1) facilitation for the abstract permission version was replicated but found to be dependent upon the presence of explicit negatives on the not-p and not-q cards; and (2) this facilitation was enhanced by the Margolis not-p and not-q instruction. Per Girotto, Mazzocco, and Cherubini (1992), these findings and the observed error patterns are consistent with pragmatic schema theory. The major findings for the standard version of the task were: (1) none of the factors significantly impacted proportion correct [performance was poor, ≦10% correct in 15 of 16 conditions] and (2) the number of not-p & not-q incorrect selections was increased significantly for the not-p and not-q instruction. These results are discussed in terms of Manktelow and Over's argument that the standard abstract task and the permission schema version are actually different problems.