The Relation Between Psychological Distress,Television Exposure,and Television-Viewing Motives in Crime Victims

This study examines the relation between psychological distress as a result of criminal victimization and television exposure and viewing motives. Participants were 221 recent crime victims who were measured for "common" distress symptoms (Symptoms Check List-90), symptomatology associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (Self Inventarisation List), amount of television exposure, viewing motives, and selection of specific programs. Remarkable gender differences were found in the relation between psychological distress and amount of television exposure and gratifications sought from television. With regard to selective exposure, the results indicate that severity of distress symptoms may be a moderating factor in the affect-dependent stimulus arrangement theory (Zillmann & Bryant, 1985).     

Predicting Selection and Activity in Television Genre Viewing

"Active" television viewing has meant (among other things) selective exposure to types of content, attention to that content, and several different kinds of other activities during viewing itself. This study argues that such meanings are differently predicted by three types of predictors (individuals' gratifications sought from different television genres, their expertise with these genres, and their need for cognition), and also vary by genre. Two different instrumental reasons for viewing (mood and content preference) both predicted selective viewing and thinking while viewing, but only content preference predicted attentive viewing. Casual reasons for viewing were related to less viewing and more channel surfing behavior. Need for cognition was unrelated to variation in genre viewing, but it was related in differing but sensible ways to attention to different genres.

These results support the utility of genre in differentiating processes in television viewing and further argue for making a number of distinctions in research: between genres, between gratifications, between gratifications and other predictors, and between selective viewing and during-viewing activities.     

Children,television, and conceptions about chores: Attitudes and behaviors

This study examines the relationship between television viewing and sex role attitudes/behaviors from the perspective of cultivation theory. It uses a sample of fourth- and fifth grade children to examine if television viewing is related to children's attitudes and behaviors in relation to household chores that are typically viewed as something boys do or something girls do. The sample was equally divided into fourth and fifth graders as well as boys and girls; the racial distribution was 64% white, 21% black, and 14% other races. There were statistically significant relationships between television viewing and scores on an index of attitudes toward sex-stereotyped chores that maintained statistical significance under conditions of multiple controls. Although viewing was not related to which chores the children actually performed, there were statistically significant relationships between attitudes, behaviors, and viewing. For both the boys and girls there were moderate to strong statistically significant relationships which increased with television viewing, between attitudes about who should do certain chores, and about whether or not the children said they did chores typically associated with the other sex.     

Television viewing, aggression, and ethnicity.

For 416 college students, questioned about their experiences with aggression and television viewing, only very weak correlations between preference for violent shows and aggression were observed. Black males watched significantly more television than other respondents. These findings suggest that the frequently reported correlation between viewing televised violence and aggression may not appear when sex, ethnicity, and education are controlled in a sample of young adults.     

Television Exposure,Sleep Time,and Neuropsychological Function Among Preschoolers

We explored whether sleep time mediates the relation between preschoolers' television exposure and two indicators of neuropsychological function: executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). With a sample of 107 preschoolers and their parents, we found that heavier background television exposure and nighttime television viewing were related to fewer hours of sleep, which, in turn, was related to weaker ToM. However, sleep time did not mediate the relation between intentional television viewing and EF. In this article, we discuss the importance of understanding the mechanisms by which television exposure can affect children's neuropsychological function and offer several alternative explanations.     

Social Capital, Television, and the "Mean World": Trust, Optimism, and Civic Participation

Robert Putnam argues that much of the decline in social trust and civic engagement in the United States can be attributed to increased television viewing. People who watch a lot of television are likely to believe that the real world is as "mean" as the "television world," and hence withdraw their trust from other people and decline to participate in civic affairs. Using data from the GSS and other surveys, I show that it is not television that makes people less trusting, but optimism for the future that makes people more trusting. When measures of optimism were used as determinants of trust in the estimation of a simultaneous equation model, the effects of television vanished. There is no support for the argument that television makes us less trusting because of the content of the shows we watch, or for the argument that television makes us withdraw from civic engagement because of the amount of time consumed by viewing. In addition, no evidence for specific cohort effects was found.     

Who's That Girl: Television's Role In The Body Image Development Of Young White And Black Women

Although findings indicate a connection between frequent media use and greater body dissatisfaction, little attention has focused on the role of race. Accordingly, this study investigates the relation between television viewing and body image among 87 Black and 584 White women. Participants reported monthly viewing amounts of mainstream and Black-oriented television programs as well as body attitudes as measured by the Eating Disorders Inventory, the Body Esteem Scale, and the Body Shape Questionnaire. Results suggest different patterns predicting body image for White and Black women. Among White women, viewing mainstream television predicted poorer body image, while viewing Black-oriented media was unrelated to body image. Among Black women, viewing Black-oriented television predicted healthier body image, while viewing mainstream television was unrelated to body image. Ethnic identity also predicted healthier body image among Black women, and appeared to moderate, to some extent, the contributions of viewing Black-oriented programming.     

Uses and Gratifications of Media Violence: Personality Correlates of Viewing and Liking Violent Genres

This study examined the relation between personality factors, as measured by the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised and individuals' viewing and enjoyment of various television and film genres. Five hundred fifty adults between the ages of 18 and 78 were surveyed. Utilizing a uses and gratifications model, the factors underlying media use (gratifications sought-GS) and media liking (gratifications obtained-GO), particularly of violent fare, were investigated. Overall, it was found that viewing (GS) and liking (GO) were not strongly related. In terms of personality factors, there was some supporting evidence that personality factors are associated with liking and, to a lesser extent, watching certain content. Several of the Neuroticism facets were positively related to watching violent media, watching real crime, and watching cop dramas; however, there were no significant relations between Neuroticism and liking violent content. For Extraversion, there was a negative relation with overall television viewing, but a positive one with movie watching. When extraverts did watch television, the results indicated a significant association between Extraversion and various violent genres. For Openness there was a positive relation between liking of violent media and openness to aesthetics. Last, we found that several facets of Agreeableness were negatively associated with liking violent content.     

Television Viewing and Attentional Abilities in Fourth and Fifth Grade Children

To evaluate the common assumption that television viewing is related to attentional difficulties in school, 70 fourth and fifth grade students recorded a “television diary” for one week and reported their preferred television shows. Parents estimated their child's television viewing time and reported their child's preferred shows. Assessment of attentional difficulties included teacher ratings, parent ratings, standardized tests, and classroom observations. It was found that the amount of television a child viewed was significantly related to teacher ratings of attentional difficulties, but not to parent ratings, classroom observations or a standardized test. Type of shows viewed did not relate to any attentional outcome variable. There was a clear relationship between fourth and fifth grade children's ability to pay attention in school, as assessed by their teacher, and the amount of time they spent watching television.     

Dependency in consumer media relations: an application to the case of teleshopping

• This paper analyses the teleshopping issue in terms of the Media Dependency Theory. The objective is to verify whether dependency relations between television shoppers and the television medium and television shopping are key variables to explain watching and buying behaviour. A model is proposed that integrates the dependency‐viewing‐purchase relation, tested on a sample of Spanish television shoppers. The results of the study confirm the direct relationship between the antecedents of dependency, dependency and future intentions of behaviour.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Comparing Television Use and Reading in Children With ADHD and Non-Referred Children Across Two Age Groups

There has been abundant speculation, but very little research, concerning the role of television in the lives of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study compared the use of television and other media in samples of children with ADHD and nonreferred children. Children with ADHD were reported to watch more television, a difference partially accounted for by demographic and environmental characteristics. Children with ADHD were also reported to enjoy television more and have greater involvement in television-related activities, and to enjoy reading less and be less involved in reading-related activities. However, there were no diagnostic group differences in reports of weekly reading, and weekly reading was unrelated to television viewing in children with ADHD. Results suggest a complex relation between television viewing and ADHD not recognized in previous research and popular commentary, and suggest that research on children with ADHD's television use should consider environmental and developmental contexts.     

Geophysical variables and behavior: LXVIII. Distal and lunar variables and traffic accidents in Saskatchewan 1984-1989.

The daily total number of traffic accidents and traffic accident severity for the years 1984 to 1989 in Saskatchewan were analyzed to estimate relationships with day of the week, season of the year, and various lunar variables (lunar phase, distance of the moon from the earth, and moon-sun tidal index). A regression model with both a linear term and a trigonometric term was fitted to the data. No relationship between lunar cycles and total accidents or severity of accident was found. A larger number of total accidents was found during the winter months and weekends; however, more severe accidents tended to occur during the summer months. A slight linear trend was uncovered for total accidents over the time period under consideration.     

Association of television violence exposure with executive functioning and white matter volume in young adult males

Prior research has indicated that self-reported violent media exposure is associated with poorer performance on some neuropsychological tests in adolescents. This study aimed to examine the relationship of executive functioning to violent television viewing in healthy young adult males and examine how brain structure is associated with media exposure measures. Sixty-five healthy adult males (ages 18–29) with minimal video game experience estimated their television viewing habits over the past year and, during the subsequent week, recorded television viewing time and characteristics in a daily media diary. Participants then completed a battery of neuropsychological laboratory tests quantifying executive functions and underwent a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. Aggregate measures of executive functioning were not associated with measures of overall television viewing (any content type) during the past week or year. However, the amount of television viewing of violent content only, as indicated by both past-year and daily diary measures, was associated with poorer scores on an aggregate score of inhibition, interference control and attention, with no relationship to a composite working memory score. In addition, violent television exposure, as measured with daily media diaries, was associated with reduced frontoparietal white matter volume. Future longitudinal work is necessary to resolve whether individuals with poor executive function and slower white matter growth are more drawn to violent programming, or if extensive media violence exposure modifies cognitive control mechanisms mediated primarily via prefrontal cortex. Impaired inhibitory mechanisms may be related to reported increases in aggression with higher media violence exposure.     

Maternal Characteristics Associated with Television Viewing Habits of Low-Income Preschool Children

Few studies have examined maternal characteristics associated with heavy or inappropriate television viewing on the part of their children. We investigated the relationship between children’s television viewing habits and maternal depressive symptoms and parenting beliefs. The participants were 175 low income children (mean age = 62.1 months) and their mothers who participated in a larger national study of Early Head Start eligible children. Our sample included families from two predominantly rural sites. Mothers completed a survey about the amount of time their children spend watching television during the week and on the weekend, and the types of programs they watch, as well as questionnaires related to maternal depression and parenting attitudes. According to mothers’ report, most of the young children in our sample exceeded the total viewing time recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics (maximum 2 h per day), and the majority watched at least some programming designed for adult audiences. Maternal depressive symptoms and beliefs about parenting were associated with heavier viewing on the part of the child, as well as with viewing of age-inappropriate content.     

Cultivation Theory and Research

This is a critical analysis of how cultivation has been conceptualized in theory and research. Cultivation indicators are examined for their meaning in texts, the meaning received by viewers, and the distinction between estimations and beliefs. The construct of television exposure is analyzed in terms of the assumptions of uniform messages and nonselective viewing, as well as the conception of time and dominance. The nature of relationship is illuminated through the assumptions of linearity, asymmetry, control variables, causation, level of generality, mainstreaming, and resonance. Recommendations are provided to suggest revisions for conceptualizing the existing theory and extending it. Suggestions for extension include reconceptualizing the effect and the relationship, developing a typology of effects, considering the context of other simultaneous influences, providing analysis over time, and examining the process of influence on individuals and on the messages.     

The Role of Television in the Socialization of Nonverbal Behavioral Skills

This study examined the relation between level of television viewing and ,nonverbal behavioral encoding skills among school-aged children. As predicted, frequent TV viewers communicated emotions common on television (happiness and sadness) better than emotions uncommon on television (disgust and fear/surprise), a pattern that did not emerge for infrequent TV viewers. Additionally, compared with infrequent TV viewers, frequent viewers were better encoders of spontaneous nonverbal displays, but worse encoders of posed displays. The results of a follow-up study suggest that this latter pattern may reflect a failure by children who are exposed to highly expressive television models to engage in active self-regulation of their nonverbal expressions.     

Media Exposure and Exemplar Accessibility

This study investigated the relation between television exposure and the ease with which individuals can retrieve examples of social events. Ninety-six college students were prompted to think of examples of constructs, some of which are frequently portrayed on television. Perceived ease of retrieving the examples and the source of the examples were measured. Media examples were more frequently recalled for events portrayed often in the media but infrequently experienced personally (e.g., courtroom trial, murder). Personal experiences were the most easily retrieved for events encountered frequently in real life, even when these events are also frequently portrayed on television (e.g., highway accidents, dates). Ease of retrieving media examples was related to hours of TV viewing, but only for viewing of television programs in which the events were common and when the direct experience with the events was likely to be low. Results are discussed with respect to media's influence on social judgment and heuristic processing.     

Television and conceptions about sex roles: Maintaining conventionality and the status quo

This paper explores the image of men and women in annual sample of primetime network dramatic television programming, and the relationship between television viewing and espousing sexist views of the roles of men and women in society. The analysis revealed that sex role images, over the past 10–15 years, have been quite stable, traditional, conventional, and supportive of the status quo. The cultivation analysis, a secondary analysis of data from the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) General Social Surveys, provides some evidence that television viewing may be related to more sexist views of women's role in society.