Psychological Processes Underlying Cultivation Effects Further Tests of Construct Accessibility

This study tested whether the accessibility of information in memory mediates the cultivation effect (i.e., the effect of television viewing on social perceptions), consistent with the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). Accessibility was operationalized as the time needed to generate frequency estimates of the real-world prevalence of crime, marital discord, and particular occupations. The independent variable was amount of soap opera viewing, and the study used only very heavy (5 or more hours per week) and very light (zero hours per week) viewers. Heavy viewers gave significantly higher frequency estimates (cultivation effect) and responded significantly faster (accessibility effect) than did light viewers, replicating the findings of Shrum and O'Gunn (1993). Soap opera viewing also had an indirect effect on the frequency estimates of crime and occupational prevalence through its effect on response latency, supporting the notion of accessibility as a mediating variable. No such mediating effect was noted for marital discord estimates.     

Television viewing and the learning of sex-role stereotypes

This study was designed to determine the relationship between the amount of time children spend watching television and their knowledge of adult sex-role stereotypes. Males and females in grades 1, 3, 5, and 7 who were classified as heavy television viewers (25 or more hours per week) or light viewers (10 or less hours per week) both at the time of the study and 15 months previously were administered the Sex Stereotype Measure, an instrument designed to determine children's awareness of stereotyped sex-role perceptions held by adults. Heavy viewers were found to have more stereotyped perceptions than light viewers. A significant interaction effect indicated that among low viewers the perception of male stereotypes steadily declines with increasing age; among heavy viewers, stereotypic responses to male items are maintained with increasing age. No comparable interaction effect was obtained for perception of female stereotypes. The role of interaction with live models in breaking down stereotypic perceptions of males is discussed.A modified version of this paper was presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, April 1975.     

Television and beliefs about health care and medical treatment

A representative sample of London television viewers answered questions on their attitudes to the quality of medical care they might receive if hospitalized, on their beliefs about the scope for control over one’s health, on the Just World Scale, and on their experience of viewing each of three TV series dealing with health matters. One series is an anodyne soap opera, one a light-hearted talkshow, and the third is a powerful though cynical drama series. Viewing of the latter,The Nation’s Health, was negatively related to expectations of good treatment if hospitalized, a link that did not emerge with experience of the other two programs. Seen in greater detail, the ostensibly linear correlation appears more likely to be a U-shaped relationship with the heaviest viewers being resilient in confidence, unlike light viewers whose confidence may have been shaken enough to deter them from further viewing. The results are discussed as a parallel to the controversy between Gerbner et al. (1977) and Hirsch (1980).     

Sex roles and soap operas: What adolescents learn about single motherhood

This study investigated the contribution of daytime television soap operas to the perception of the roles and lifestyle of the single mother. The perceptions of soap opera viewers and nonviewers were compared using 163 junior and senior high students as subjects, 9% of whom were ethnic minorities. In particular, viewers perceive that single mothers have good jobs, are relatively well-educated and do not live in poverty. Further, they perceive that their babies will be as healthy as most babies and that their babies will get love and attention from adult men who are friends of their mothers. To the degree that these perceptions contribute to the gender role socialization of adolescents, we are faced with a problematic situation. Particularly in light of the fact that soap operas are increasingly targeting the adolescent viewer, the image portrayed on soap operas and the impact it appears to have is of great concern.     

Psychological Processes in Perceiving Reality

Little attention has been paid to the mental processes and the story elements that influence perceived reality judgments of media stories. People often lack the motivation or ability to be thoughtful about perceived reality judgments. This is particularly true when the stimulus controls the pace of the story (e.g., television). It is possible that people use the typical and atypical elements of a story as a heuristic for making simple judgments about perceived reality of media narratives. In 2 studies, the careful manipulation of atypical and typical information in a soap opera and a news story predicted about half the variance in perceived reality. As the typicality of the stories increased, so did the participants' ratings of the perceived reality of the stories. In a 3rd study, while viewing entertainment television shows, participants used dials to continuously rate the selected programs for perceived reality, typicality, interest, and liking. Results indicate that viewers can make moment-to-moment reality judgments, and these judgments are strongly related to typicality. Interest-liking was related to typicality and perceived reality for drama. For comedy, however, situations with low reality produced greater interest and liking. Typicality appears to be a key psychological characteristic of media stories.     

The relationship of television viewing to physical fitness and obesity

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which light, moderate, and heavy television viewing relates to multiple measures of obesity and physical fitness among 379 high school males. The Body Mass Index and Tucker's Perceived Somatotype Scale were employed to assess obesity; physical fitness was measured by six tests: pushups, pullups, sidestep, long jump, situps, and jog-walk. Results showed that light television viewers scored significantly better than heavy viewers on a composite fitness index and on pushups, pullups, sidestep, situps, and jog-walk considered individually. Similarly, light viewers performed better than moderate viewers on the composite fitness measure and on pushups, pullups, and jog-walk. Light viewers displayed a strong tendency toward better fitness than moderate viewers on the long jump, situps, and sidestep tests, although statistical significance was not attained. Light viewers were not significantly less obese than moderate or heavy viewers. Statistical control of the demographic variables, applied simultaneously, had little influence on the associations found in this study. The findings indicate that for purposes of good physical fitness, television viewing should be limited to one hour or less per day.     

Effects of a prosocial television soap opera in promoting women's status

The effects of exposure to "Hum Log," India's first long-running television soap opera, on viewers' beliefs about women's status, freedom of choice, and family planning were assessed in a survey of 1170 respondents from three geographic areas. The soap opera is intended to promote prosocial beliefs about the role of women in India. A structural equation model was developed to measure the impact of awareness, involvement, and television dependency on personal beliefs. Viewers who were most exposed to "Hum Log" were more involved with its characters and more dependent on Indian television for education and entertainment, but were no more aware than their less exposed counterparts of the prosocial beliefs promoted by the soap opera. There was no significant association between viewers' involvement with the characters and their beliefs about women's equality, freedom of choice, or family planning. Moreover, viewers who were more dependent on television did not exhibit significantly stronger beliefs about these issues. There was a significant association between awareness of the prosocial messages promoted in "Hum Log" and viewer beliefs in freedom of choice and family planning. Overall, it appears that, while "Hum Log" enjoys a large and dedicated audience, its messages regarding women's equality are not being assimilated on a large scale. An analysis of the female characters in the soap opera reveals that, in many cases, the self-sufficient, career-oriented women experienced negative social consequences, while characters who pursued more traditional female roles were rewarded. Thus, while there is no evidence that "Hum Log" is making a significant contribution toward changing the way women are viewed in India, its popularity paves the way for future prosocial programming     

Beliefs about relationships in relation to television viewing, soap opera viewing, and self-monitoring

Undergraduates (n=188) completed: a survey of television and soap opera viewing habits; the Relationship Beliefs Inventory, measuring dysfunctional relationship beliefs; and Snyder's Self-Monitoring Scale. It was hypothesized was that there would be positive associations between viewing habits and endorsement of dysfunctional relationship beliefs. Results supported this hypothesis. High television viewing was associated with the belief “the sexes are different,” and high soap opera viewing was associated with the belief “mindreading is expected” between partners. High self-monitors watched television more for escape than low self-monitors. Implications for research on dysfunctional relationship beliefs are discussed.     

Beliefs about relationships in relation to television viewing, soap opera viewing, and self-monitoring

Undergraduates (n=188) completed: a survey of television and soap opera viewing habits; the Relationship Beliefs Inventory, measuring dysfunctional relationship beliefs; and Snyder's Self-Monitoring Scale. It was hypothesized was that there would be positive associations between viewing habits and endorsement of dysfunctional relationship beliefs. Results supported this hypothesis. High television viewing was associated with the belief “the sexes are different,” and high soap opera viewing was associated with the belief “mindreading is expected” between partners. High self-monitors watched television more for escape than low self-monitors. Implications for research on dysfunctional relationship beliefs are discussed.     

On the nature of attitude–behavior relations: the strong guide,the weak follow

This study investigated the role of attitude strength as a moderator variable with regard to the direction of the relation between attitudes and behavior. The hypothesis was tested that strong attitudes guide behavior, whereas weak attitudes follow behavior in accordance with self‐perception principles. The study (N = 106) consisted of two sessions. In session 1, attitudes and attitude strength (certainty, importance, centrality) towards Greenpeace were measured. One week later, participants returned to the laboratory (session 2) and were given the opportunity to donate money to Greenpeace. After the participants' decision to donate money or not, attitudes towards Greenpeace were measured again. The results were consistent with the predictions. First, strong attitudes were more predictive of donation behavior than weak attitudes. Moreover, session 2 attitudes of weak attitude participants were influenced by their donation behavior, whereas no such effect was found among strong attitude participants. Finally, strong attitudes were also found to be more stable over time than weak attitudes. The results provide a complete overview of the moderating role of attitude strength with regard to the bi‐directional attitude‐behavior relationship. Results are discussed in the light of attitude retrieval versus attitude‐construction processes. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Television's role regarding alcohol use among teenagers

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which adolescents classified as light, moderate, or heavy television viewers differ regarding alcohol use. The extent to which demographic variables mediate the television-alcohol association also was investigated. A total of 394 high school males completed a written questionnaire to assess television and drinking practices. As hypothesized, heavy viewers consumed alcohol significantly more often than did light and moderate viewers, especially the former, particularly when demographic variables were controlled simultaneously. Television as a powerful and pervasive influence on youth, containing many undesirable health messages, is discussed.     

Source confusion as an explanation of cultivation: a test of the mechanisms underlying confusion of fiction with reality on television

Cultivation studies have found evidence that heavy television viewers adopt a world view congruent with how the world is portrayed in fictional television programs. An explanation is that viewers may remember fictional TV stories as realistic stories or news (fiction-to-news confusion). Until now, fiction-to-news confusion was found only if at least a week evolved between watching TV and asking viewers what was remembered. The present study conducted with a purposive sample of students and employees of a college in The Netherlands (N=96; M age = 28.6 yr., SD = 10.9) indicates that fiction-to-news confusions can also occur almost immediately after watching. In addition, whereas earlier research suggests that fiction-to-news confusions are associated with heavy viewing, i.e., more confusion when more hours per day are spent on TV viewing in leisure time, and faulty memory, the present study more specifically suggests that participants make many fiction-to-news confusions when they are exposed to relatively many fictional TV fragments that contain threatening, violent events.     

Television Exposure and Children's Decoding of Nonverbal Behavior1

Two studies considered the way in which the magnitude of exposure to television relates to children's understanding and interpretation of others' nonverbal behavior. In the first study, 6th graders made judgments regarding other children whose nonverbal facial behavior did not match their internal emotional state. Results showed that heavier television viewers held a less differentiated, more simplistic view of the consequences of nonverbal self-presentation strategies. In the second study, children in Grades 2 through 6 made judgments of others' nonverbal expressions of emotion. As predicted, heavier television viewers were better at decoding others' nonverbal expressions than lighter viewers, presumably because of their greater exposure to nonverbal displays of emotion on television. In addition, nonverbal decoding skills improved with age.     

Neural Network Simulations Support Heuristic Processing Model of Cultivation Effects

Many studies have shown that heavy TV viewers make social reality judgments more in line with televised reality. Shrum's (2001) heuristic model of cultivation effects predicted and found that biases in first-order cultivation judgments resemble heuristic processing. Systematic processing eliminated the effect. This study presents a series of computational simulations to examine whether a simple feed-forward neural network model exhibits learning behavior in accordance with Shrum's model. The data from the model are tested in contrast to data from human participants. Results closely fit human data. Simulations show that increased television exposure increases construct accessibility; television exemplars are not discounted when exhibiting the cultivation effect; and systematic processing reduces or eliminates the cultivation effect.     

Familiarity influences judgments of sex: the case of voice recognition

Two experiments are reported in which subjects made judgments about the sex or the familiarity of a voice. In experiment 1, subjects were fans of the BBC-radio soap opera, The Archers, and familiar voice clips were taken from this programme. Subjects showed a large reduction in response times when making sex judgments to familiar voices, despite the fact that sex judgments are generally much faster than familiarity judgments. In experiment 2, the same familiar clips were played to subjects unfamiliar with the soap opera, and no difference was observed in times to make sex judgments to Archers or non-Archers voices. We conclude that, unlike the case of face recognition, sex and identity processing of voices are not independent. The findings constrain models of person recognition across multiple modalities.     

Audience Activity and Soap Opera Involvement A Uses and Effects Investigation

This investigation examined the role of motives, attitudes, and audience activity in explaining the affective, cognitive, and behavioral involvement of 328 daytime soap opera viewers. Because inter correlations were found among motives, attitudes, activities, and involvement variables, canonical correlation analysis was used. There were two multivariate patterns. First, except for viewing to pass time, more salient viewing motivations (especially exciting entertainment and social utility), perceived realism, viewing intention, and attention were related to parasocial interaction, post viewing cognition, and post viewing discussion. Second, viewing for social utility, but not for voyeurism, and the lack of realism were related to post viewing discussion, but not to parasocial interaction. These audience orientations and the role of involvement in media uses and effects were discussed.     

Tracking the psychosocial predictors of older individuals' television uses

The elderly spend considerable amounts of time with mass media, but little is known about the psychology of their viewing habits. This study compared the relative impact of social, structural, and psychosocial variables on the television uses of elderly viewers. The results of a survey of 113 older respondents indicated that psychosocial factors accounted for variance above and beyond that of demographic and situational factors in viewing of television entertainment programs, parasocial programs (e.g., soap operas), as well as in watching of television for companionship purposes. Emotional loneliness and locus of control proved particularly significant predictors of television behavior.     

Attitudes Toward Divorce: Embeddedness and Outcomes in Personal Relationships

Divorce attitudes, attitude embeddedness, parental marital status and conflict, and personal relationship outcomes were examined in a sample of 289 undergraduate students. Results indicated that highly embedded divorce attitudes were more predictive of evaluations of divorce issues and relationship scenarios than were less embedded attitudes. Consistent with findings that divorce attitudes influence personal relationships ( Amato & DeBoer, 2001 ), participants with embedded divorce attitudes reported greater conflict and influence of relationship partners. Recollections of high parental conflict were associated with greater relationship conflict; and individuals from high-conflict intact families reported greater relationship closeness, conflict, and embedded divorce attitudes. Consequences of parental divorce and conflict for offspring divorce attitudes are discussed, as well as future research on divorce attitudes and their strength.     

Attitudes toward marriage: Embeddedness and outcomes in personal relationships

This study examines marriage attitudes, attitude embeddedness, personal relationship outcomes, and parental marital status and conflict using 400 undergraduate students. In a conceptual replication of Prislin and Ouellette (1996) , more embedded marriage attitudes are more predictive of evaluations of general marriage issues and relationship scenarios than less embedded attitudes. Consistent with findings that marriage attitudes influence relationship quality ( Amato & Rogers, 1999 ), more embedded attitudes predict relationship conflict, commitment, desirability of alternatives, and expectations of relationship success. Recollections of high parental conflict are associated with greater relationship conflict, and individuals with divorced parents report more negative marriage attitudes. Future research on relationship attitudes, their strength, and consequences of parental divorce and conflict for offspring marriage attitudes is discussed.     

Skin Tone,Crime News,and Social Reality Judgments: Priming the Stereotype of the Dark and Dangerous Black Criminal1

An experiment examined the extent to which viewers’ emotional discomfort with a crime story and perceptions and memorability of a perpetrator and victim could be influenced by the race and skin tone of the perpetrator portrayed in a newscast. Participants were exposed either to a White, light–skinned Black, medium–skinned Black, or dark–skinned Black perpetrator. In addition, participants provided self–reports of their news viewing habits. Results revealed that heavy television news viewers were more likely than light viewers to feel emotional discomfort after being exposed to the dark–skinned Black perpetrator. Heavy news viewers also had favorable perceptions of the victim when the perpetrator was Black, regardless of skin tone. Results also indicated that all participants, regardless of prior news exposure, found the perpetrator more memorable when the perpetrator was a dark–skinned Black male. The methodological and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.