BRIEF REPORT: SELECTIVE BREEDING FOR PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS AND FACTORS BASED UPON BEHAVIORAL TRAITS

This is the first of three reports of a taxonomic investigation of person- ality based on a matrix of 600 personality questionnaire items represented equally by marker items derived from the personality trait systems developed by J. P. Guilford and R. B. Cattell. This report outlines the entire prsject (Sells, Demaree, and Will, 1968) and focuses on the factor structure of the total matrix with particular concern for the relative contributions and relations of the two sources. The second report will analyze in detail the separate factor structures found in the Guilford and Cattell trait markers, while the third will summarize the final factor identification, based on analyses of the total matrix and matrices representing the Guilford and Cattell systems.     

Major Factors of Personality

Summary

French has recently resurveyed the literature regarding personality factors in order to (a) update his previous survey and (b) complement, in the noncognitive domain, the prestigious French, Ekstrom, and Price kit of reference tests for cognitive factors. This recent survey of personality factors is limited in at least two respects: (a) it relies on studies which are, in most cases, limited in size of item pools; (b) it has been greatly influenced by the two systems of Cattell and Guilford. Rather than rely on the pre-1971 literature (which belongs to an era when the factor analysis of a hundred variables was “a large factor analysis”), the writer has undertaken research aimed at accurate delineation of personality factors using itemfactoring coupled with item analysis. The article has two purposes: (a) to compare the factors in French's survey with those emerging in very recent work, and (b) to make the point that we are now likely to achieve greater comprehensiveness and accuracy in the identification of major personality factors.     

The primary personality factors of younger adolescent Hawaiians

A factor-analytic investigation was conducted to determine whether the primary personality factors of young adolescent Hawaiians were the same as the primary personality factors postulated by Cattell for adolescents on the United States mainland and in Germany. Responses of 584 Hawaiian adolescents (M age = 12.13 years) to a questionnaire that included items based on the High School Personality Questionnaire (IPAT, 1973) were analyzed by a procedure that adhered closely to Cattell's recommendations. The seven factors that were derived have been encountered in previous factor-analytic investigations, but, as a set, they correspond neither to the primary personality factors postulated by Cattell nor to factors postulated by other theorists who have also adopted a factorial approach to personality. They are, however, especially relevant to some psychoanalytic theories of personality.     

Enriched behavioral prediction equation and its impact on structured leaning and the dynamic calculus

This theoretical note describes an expansion of the behavioral prediction equation, in line with the greater complexity encountered in models of structured learning theory (R. B. Cattell, 1996a). This presents learning theory with a vector substitute for the simpler scalar quantities by which traditional Pavlovian-Skinnerian models have hitherto been represented. Structured learning can be demonstrated by vector changes across a range of intrapersonal psychological variables (ability, personality, motivation, and state constructs). Its use with motivational dynamic trait measures (R. B. Cattell, 1985) should reveal new theoretical possibilities for scientifically monitoring change processes (dynamic calculus model: R. B. Cattell, 1996b), such as encountered within psychotherapeutic settings (R. B. Cattell, 1987). The enhanced behavioral prediction equation suggests that static conceptualizations of personality structure such as the Big Five model are less than optimal.     

Meta-interpretive reliability of computer-based test interpretations: the Karson Clinical Report.

Meta-interpretive reliability is a new method to evaluate the accuracy with which personality trait scores are communicated via interpretive statements in a computer-based test interpretation (CBTI). The prototypic experimental design is based on a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA); the two effects are personality traits and randomly chosen CBTI protocols. In this application, 101 psychologists read four examples of the Karson Clinical Report (KCR, Karson & O'Dell, 1975) and estimated the original trait scores from the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF; Cattell, Eber, & Tatsuoka, 1970) on which the KCR is based. Estimated trait score variance was significantly related to the Trait x Protocol interaction and the main effects for personality trait and differences among protocols (omega 2 = .55). The total effect size corresponded to a multiple correlation of .74, suggesting that the KCR had acceptable meta-interpretive reliability. The protocol effect denoted a context effect created by the juxtaposition of several interpretive statements. Additional analyses showed that individual differences among raters contributed to less than 1% of the estimated standard ten (sten) score variance. Meta-interpretive reliability is proposed as an index of the upper limit of validity for CBTIs.     

A CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL REEXAMINATION OF THE MEASUREMENT OF THE SOCIAL DESIRABILITY OF ITEMS: IMPLICATIONS FOR DETECTING DESIRABLE RESPONSE STYLE AND SCALE DEVELOPMENT

This paper calls into question traditional methods of measuring the social desirability of items and their use in scale construction. First, we make explicit that the proper focus for desirability studies of items and traits are the rated desirabilities of the alternative item responses indicating different trait levels. Second, the results from our first study show that the relation between degree of endorsement of an item and its judged desirability level is often nonlinear and varies across items such that no general model of item desirability can be adopted that will accurately represent the relations across all items, traits, and trait levels. In addition, the nature of these relationships can vary depending on whether desirability is considered in a work or general context. Third, results from a second study indicate specifically that people when instructed to self-present in a maximally desirable manner will choose for some attributes a moderate level of endorsement (e.g., "agree") rather than a more extreme response option (e.g., "strongly agree"). Subjects offer several different reasons for viewing the less extreme response options, which yield more moderate trait level scores, as more desirable. These reasons are linked to perceptions of the more extreme response option as being associated with negative behaviors and concerns about how others will view a more extreme response to the item. Both studies indicate that desirable responding to personality items is more complex than previously believed.     

R. B. Cattell: An Integration of Psychology and Ethics

Cattell has sought continually to bring psychology into dialogue with ethics. In the space available for this essay it is impossible to adequately review all of this work. The aim is to provide a brief overview by, first, discussing how Cattell has included morals and values in his theory of personality, and second, describing some features of his ideas for improving ethical reasoning and ethical systems. I will close w"ith some evaluative comments of Cattell's integration of psychology and ethics.     

项目表述效应对人格测验信度和效标效度的影响——以核心自我评价量表(CSES)为例

项目表述效应是指由项目表述方式的差异引起的与测量内容无关的系统变异,项目表述效应模型的统计本质是一种双因子模型。本研究以核心自我评价量表(CSES)为例,探讨项目表述效应对人格测验信效度的影响。采用核心自我评价量表、生活满意度量表和积极情感消极情感量表对340名“蚁族”进行测查。结果表明,CSES在核心自我评价特质以外,还存在一个反向题项目表述效应因子;忽视项目表述效应对CSES的同质性信度和效标关联效度有重要影响：高估CSES的同质性信度,低估核心自我评价与生活满意度、积极情感的正相关,高估核心自我评价与消极情感的负相关。     

Distinguishing personality and biodata items using confirmatory factor analysis of multitrait-multimethod matrices

Hard biodata, soft biodata, and personality items were developed to measure three personal constructs (Dependability, Demeanor, and Ambition). This resulted in nine sets of items forming a three-method (personality, soft biodata, and hard biodata) by three-trait (Dependability, Demeanor, and Ambition) Multitrait-Multimethod (MTMM) matrix. Four models were proposed to represent the nine scales and each was tested on a sample of 477 job applicants and subsequently cross-validated on a sample of 958 job applicants, using confirmatory factor analysis. The model where the personality and soft biodata items represented one factor and the hard biodata items represented another, distinct factor, was both the best fitting and most parsimonious model, thus confirming Asher's (1972) taxonomy.This research was based in part on a doctoral dissertation submitted to Wayne State University. I would like to thank committee members Lois Tetrick (Chair), Alan Bass, Sebastiano Fisicaro, and Thomas Naughton. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 8th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), San Francisco, CA: April, 1993.     

A six orthogonal factor model of adolescent personality derived from the HSPQ

Attention is drawn to recent major critiques of Cattell's ‘16 PF’ model of personality. Various six/seven-factor models of personality (assuming intelligence is included) derived from the 16 PF or its precursors are described. The equation of Eysenck's E and N factors with Cattell's second-order factors of ‘exvia’ and ‘anxiety’ is mentioned. An examination is made of the problems of factored scale construction and the ‘number of factors’ issue, especially when item responses are analysed.Three previous second-order factor solutions to the HSPQ are presented. These show a remarkable degree of concordance among themselves and with an item analysis of the HSPQ conducted by the writers. This item analysis also reveals serious doubts about the primary trait structure proposed by Cattell and Cattell (1969). It is suggested that, for adolescents, the four studies, with some support from the 16 PF analyses, point to a six-factor structure for personality consisting of anxiety ( = Eysenck's N); tender-tough-mindedness ( = Eysenck's Psychoticism); carefulness-casualness and two aspects of extraversion-introversion: (a) preference for working with people rather than with things. (b) Classical extraversion (the last or both (a) and (b) being analogous to Eysenck's E) and finally intelligence, if this can be classified as an aspect of personality.     

中国人幸福人格的结构与内涵

幸福人格是影响个体幸福感的重要人格特质。为了探索中国人幸福人格的结构和内涵,研究基于人格的词汇学假设,从以往研究者编制人格测验使用的初始词汇表中,筛选出225个与幸福感有关的人格词语。通过探索性因素分析和验证性因素分析,最终得到49个幸福人格词语。因素分析结果显示：中国人的幸福人格包含胆识、美德、乐观三个维度。以Campbell幸福感量表、主观幸福感量表和中国大五人格问卷简式版为效标的分析结果表明,幸福人格各维度得分可有效预测幸福感。     

Effects of estimation methods on making trait-level inferences from ordered categorical items for assessing psychopathology

In assessments of attitudes, personality, and psychopathology, unidimensional scale scores are commonly obtained from Likert scale items to make inferences about individuals' trait levels. This study approached the issue of how best to combine Likert scale items to estimate test scores from the practitioner's perspective: Does it really matter which method is used to estimate a trait? Analyses of 3 data sets indicated that commonly used methods could be classified into 2 groups: methods that explicitly take account of the ordered categorical item distributions (i.e., partial credit and graded response models of item response theory, factor analysis using an asymptotically distribution-free estimator) and methods that do not distinguish Likert-type items from continuously distributed items (i.e., total score, principal component analysis, maximum-likelihood factor analysis). Differences in trait estimates were found to be trivial within each group. Yet the results suggested that inferences about individuals' trait levels differ considerably between the 2 groups. One should therefore choose a method that explicitly takes account of item distributions in estimating unidimensional traits from ordered categorical response formats. Consequences of violating distributional assumptions were discussed.     

CATTELL AND EYSENCK FACTOR SCORES RELATED TO COMREY PERSONALITY FACTORS

The Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Cattell 16 PF Inventory, and the Comrey Personality Inventory were administered to 272 volunteers. Eysenck and Cattell factor scores were correlated with scores over homogeneous item groups (FHIDs) which define the Comrey test factors. This matrix was factor analyzed to relate the Eysenck and Cattell factor scores to the factor structure underlying the Comrey test. The Eysenck Neuroticism, Comrey Neuroticism, and Cattell second-order Anxiety factors appeared to match. The Eysenck Introversion and the Comrey Shyness factors also matched. The 16 Cattell primary factors overlapped but did not match with the Comrey factors.     

A Rigorous Test of the Fit of the Circumplex Model to Big Five Personality Data: Theoretical and Methodological Issues and Two Large Sample Empirical Tests

Our objective was to apply the rigorous test developed by Browne (1992) to determine whether the circumplex model fits Big Five personality data. This test has yet to be applied to personality data. Another objective was to determine whether blended items explained correlations among the Big Five traits. We used two working adult samples, the Eugene-Springfield Community Sample and the Professional Worker Career Experience Survey. Fit to the circumplex was tested via Browne's (1992) procedure. Circumplexes were graphed to identify items with loadings on multiple traits (blended items), and to determine whether removing these items changed five-factor model (FFM) trait intercorrelations. In both samples, the circumplex structure fit the FFM traits well. Each sample had items with dual-factor loadings (8 items in the first sample, 21 in the second). Removing blended items had little effect on construct-level intercorrelations among FFM traits. We conclude that rigorous tests show that the fit of personality data to the circumplex model is good. This finding means the circumplex model is competitive with the factor model in understanding the organization of personality traits. The circumplex structure also provides a theoretically and empirically sound rationale for evaluating intercorrelations among FFM traits. Even after eliminating blended items, FFM personality traits remained correlated.     

Factors of style and personality

In an attempt to find relationships between psychological and linguistic variables, style samples of short stories, 300 words each, were analyzed according to formal criteria and the results were correlated with scores on personality tests. The number of significant correlations supported the hypothesis that style is related to personality. A factor analysis, using the principal component solution and Varimax rotation (Harman, 1967), of the correlation matrix resulted in six identifiable factors of style, three factors of psychological tests, and a large number of small factors, each represented only by two to five experimental variables with significant loadings. A significant loading for interpretation purposes was defined in agreement with Guilford (1956) as 0.30 or greater, positive or negative. A close examination of style factors led to the tentative differentiation of a basic language factor as resulting from grammatical constraint, and several factors of subjective style of individuals. Some of these later factors had enough loadings on personality variables to permit cautious psychological interpretation.     

Tailored Interviewing: An Application of Item Response Theory for Personality Measurement

Despite recent technological advances in mass survey administration, surveys seeking to measure personality traits still employ procedures identical to the traditional paper-and-pencil scales, in which every respondent is asked exactly the same items, regardless of his or her trait level. We present an empirical application of personality measurement in which the number and sequence of scale items are tailored to the trait level of each respondent and show that the total number of questions asked of each respondent could be reduced substantially, with a measurable and controllable increase in the standard error of measurement.     

Computerized adaptive personality assessment: an illustration with the Absorption scale

This article introduces the theory behind and applications of adaptive personality assessment based on the item response theory. Two adaptive testing strategies were compared: (a) fixed test length and (b) clinical decision. Real-data simulations, based on the item responses from 1,000 subjects who had previously taken the 34-item Absorption scale (Tellegen, 1982) by means of paper-and-pencil format, were used to illustrate these strategies. Results suggest that computerized adaptive personality assessment works impressively well. With the fixed-test-length strategy, a 50% savings in administered items was achieved with little loss of measurement precision. In the clinical-decision testing strategy, individuals who were extreme on the Absorption trait were identified with perfect accuracy using, on average, 25% of the available items. The implications of these results for personality research and assessment are discussed.     

Personality and the derogation of others: Descriptions based on self- and peer report

We examined the tendency to react to failure by derogating others. A situation was constructed to test this reaction among those posited to exhibit this behavior most often—narcissistically inclined individuals. The participants (N=64) consisted of college students screened for pathological personality traits using self-report and peer report measures. Participants completed a two-part lab task and received false feedback indicating that they had been outperformed by fellow participants. Among self-report items, the best predictor of other-derogation was narcissism; among peer-report items, the best predictor items described cold, aloof, and avoidant personality tendencies. Findings are discussed with regard to identifying personality trait–situation–behavior patterns through multiple assessment methods.     

Towards More Rigorous Personality Trait–Outcome Research

Much of personality research attempts to identify causal links between personality traits and various types of outcomes. I argue that causal interpretations require traits to be seen as existentially and holistically real and the associations to be independent of specific ways of operationalizing the traits. Among other things, this means that, to the extents that causality is to be ascribed to such holistic traits, items and facets of those traits should be similarly associated with specific outcomes, except for variability in the degrees to which they reflect the traits (i.e. factor loadings). I argue that, before drawing causal inferences about personality trait–outcome associations, the presence of this condition should be routinely tested by, for example, systematically comparing the outcome associations of individual items or facets, or sampling different indicators for measuring the same purported traits. Existing evidence suggests that observed associations between personality traits and outcomes at least sometimes depend on which particular items or facets have been included in trait operationalizations, calling trait‐level causal interpretations into question. However, this has rarely been considered in the literature. I argue that when outcome associations are specific to facets, they should not be generalized to traits. Furthermore, when the associations are specific to particular items, they should not even be generalized to facets. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology