Learning styles and academic outcome: The validity and utility of Vermunt's Inventory of Learning Styles in a British higher education setting

Background: Vermunt's (1994) Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) integrates four components of learning: processing strategies, regulation strategies, mental models of learning and learning orientations. Using explanatory factor analysis, Vermunt (1998) identified four different learning styles, meaning‐directed, reproduction‐directed, application‐directed and undirected, which displayed characteristic patterns of factor loadings across the four components of learning. Aims: The aims of the current study were to test the generalisability of Vermunt's integrated model of learning with a sample of students from a British university and to establish whether different learning styles were associated with different academic outcomes. Sample: A total of 273 students from a British university took part. Methods: Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test Vermunt's four‐factor model of learning styles and compare it with alternative models. Interrelationships between components of the ILS were examined in more detail using regression analyses. The relationship between learning style and academic outcome was also examined. Results: Fit indices indicated that Vermunt's four‐factor model of learning styles provided the best fit for the current sample. Path estimates associated with meaning‐directed and reproduction‐directed learning styles loaded across components as described by Vermunt but application‐directed and undirected learning styles loaded mainly on conceptions and orientations components. Undirected learning style had a low negative association with academic performance, while the meaning‐directed learning style had a low positive association with academic performance. Conclusions: Although the ILS did identify Vermunt's four learning styles, different learning environments influence the precise characteristics of each learning style.     

Bartlett Revisited: Reconfiguration of Long-Term Memory in Young and Older Adults

This study was performed after the tradition of F. C. Bartlett (1932), who demonstrated that memory reconfigures over time. The authors investigated the memory of young and older adults to examine the degree to which the aging process influences reconfigurative tendencies. From an initial sample of 53 participants, 20 young and 19 older adults completed 6 tests of recall for Bartlett's original text materials over an 84-day period. Consistent with the broad conclusions of Bartlett's study, reconfiguration was observed: Both young and older adults introduced errors into memory. Older adult recall was lower overall than that of young adults, and recall performance diminished over time. However, there was no difference between the performances of young and older adults with respect to incorrectly recalled intrusive elements.     

BRIEF REPORT: BARTLETT'S TEST OF SPHERICITY AND CHANCE FINDINGS IN FACTOR ANALYSIS

Bartlett's test of sphericitg: was applied to a correlation matrix computed on random normal deviates by Armstrong and Soelberg (1968), and returned a chi square value indicating that the matrix could have been generated from a population where the correlation coefficients are zero. These results re- emphasize the desirability of computing this test prior to proceeding t o factor extraction, and in accord with the findings of other writers, indicate this test to be sensitive in detecting results which can be ascribed to chance.     

Standard errors and confidence intervals for correlations corrected for indirect range restriction: A simulation study comparing analytic and bootstrap methods

A frequent topic of psychological research is the estimation of the correlation between two variables from a sample that underwent a selection process based on a third variable. Due to indirect range restriction, the sample correlation is a biased estimator of the population correlation, and a correction formula is used. In the past, bootstrap standard error and confidence intervals for the corrected correlations were examined with normal data. The present study proposes a large-sample estimate (an analytic method) for the standard error, and a corresponding confidence interval for the corrected correlation. Monte Carlo simulation studies involving both normal and non-normal data were conducted to examine the empirical performance of the bootstrap and analytic methods. Results indicated that with both normal and non-normal data, the bootstrap standard error and confidence interval were generally accurate across simulation conditions (restricted sample size, selection ratio, and population correlations) and outperformed estimates of the analytic method. However, with certain combinations of distribution type and model conditions, the analytic method has an advantage, offering reasonable estimates of the standard error and confidence interval without resorting to the bootstrap procedure's computer-intensive approach. We provide SAS code for the simulation studies.     

Stability of individual differences in personality characteristics from 3 to 15 years

Ratings of 23 personality variables on a longitudinal sample of 97 children at the ages of 3, 7, 11 and 15 yr had previously been shown to yield orthogonal factors of high continuity of structure across ages. Subjects' scores on these factors were employed to derive stability coefficients over these ages. The general level of obtained r's is modest, but is higher for measures of Extraversion-Introversion (EI) and other broad factors (Neuroticism (N), Melancholic-Sanguine (MS), and Choleric-Phlegmatic (CP)) than for narrower Varimax factors (EI, Melancholic and Activity), except in the case of Choleric. Complete regression factor scores proved more satisfactory than an inexact method. Global ratings of EI and N yielded similar r's to the factor measures.The effects of correcting for rater unreliability and possible values of ‘protocol’ unreliability are examined. Even in the case of a maximal correction, stability tends to be lower than is found for IQ data, suggesting greater instability of the underlying personality variables.Lawley's test of heterogeneity of correlation matrices provides only limited evidence of a simplex pattern across ages, and virtually none of a ‘sleeper effect’. Jennrich's test of differences in matrices provides no evidence of sex differences in stability.Results on stability of the specific variables are also reported. They show, with few exceptions, lower stability than factor variables. Jennrich's test yielded significant sex differences on only three specific variables.     

Short-term effect of competition rule changes on collective effectiveness and self-efficacy in youth football players

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to assess the short effect of the modification of the players' number, field size, and goal size on the levels of physical self-efficacy, football-specific self-efficacy, and collective self-efficacy in male youth football players.DesignA quasi-experimental study of type A-B-A (three tournaments) was implemented to measure the effect of rule changes on the player's self-efficacy. The independent variable of the study was the competition format: official rules of the Royal Spanish Football Federation for U-12 vs. modified rules (size of the playing field (58 × 38 m. vs. 38 × 20 m); number of players per team on the field (8-a-side vs. 5-a-side); and goal size (6 × 2 m. vs. 3 × 2 m.). The dependent variables were physical self-efficacy, football-specific self-efficacy, and collective self-efficacy. The technical tactical players' actions of clearances, passes, and shots were measured as cofounding variables to assess the implication of the modification of the rules on the game.MethodThe sample analyzed was made up of four U-12 male football teams (n = 48), which played a total of 24 matches in three tournaments. In tournaments one and three, teams played with the official 8v8 football rules. In tournament two, teams played with the modified rules.ResultsThere was a significant increase in the football-specific self-efficacy at the third tournament. The experimental rules did not change players' general physical self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy. The experimental rules involved the realization of more defensive actions (clearances) and offensive actions (passes and shots) by players. The results showed that both competition rules involved similar values of self-efficacy.ConclusionsThese results show that the short-effect of participation in modified competitions maintains the values of football-specific self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy. Future studies should consider the interaction of self-efficacy with other psychological variables, such as self-esteem, cooperation motivation, etc., and other aspects of the game, such as technic-tactical, physiological, health, etc.     

IDENTIFYING OPTIMAL PREDICTOR COMPOSITES AND TESTING FOR GENERALIZABILITY ACROSS JOBS AND PERFORMANCE FACTORS

The initial examination of validity generalization in the Army Selection and Classification Project used data from a concurrent validation sample of 4,039 job incumbents drawn from a representative sample of nine jobs. The available data consisted of 24 predictor scores and five job performance factor scores on each individual. The major objectives were to determine (a) the degree of validity generalization across the major components of performance, with the job held constant, and (b) the degree of validity generalization across jobs within each major performance factor. After reducing the predictor set by eliminating variables that added no information, a modified confirmatory analysis was used to test the hypotheses that one equation would fit the data from all performance components and that one equation would fit the data from all jobs, given a particular performance component. The major findings were that different predictor equations were needed for each of the five criterion factors. For generalization across jobs, within each criterion factor, one equation fit the data for four of the five performance components. Different prediction equations were required for the component that reflects proficiency on the technical tasks specific to each job.     

Extending the CLAST sequential rule to one-way ANOVA under group sampling

Several studies have demonstrated that the fixed-sample stopping rule (FSR), in which the sample size is determined in advance, is less practical and efficient than are sequential-stopping rules. The composite limited adaptive sequential test (CLAST) is one such sequential-stopping rule. Previous research has shown that CLAST is more efficient in terms of sample size and power than are the FSR and other sequential rules and that it reflects more realistically the practice of experimental psychology researchers. The CLAST rule has been applied only to thet test of mean differences with two matched samples and to the chi-square independence test for twofold contingency tables. The present work extends previous research on the efficiency of CLAST to multiple group statistical tests. Simulation studies were conducted to test the efficiency of the CLAST rule for the one-way ANOVA for fixed effects models. The ANOVA general test and two linear contrasts of multiple comparisons among treatment means are considered. The article also introduces four rules for allocatingN observations toJ groups under the general null hypothesis and three allocation rules for the linear contrasts. Results show that the CLAST rule is generally more efficient than the FSR in terms of sample size and power for one-way ANOVA tests. However, the allocation rules vary in their optimality and have a differential impact on sample size and power. Thus, selecting an allocation rule depends on the cost of sampling and the intended precision.     

Exact F Tests in an ANOVA Procedure for Dependent Observations

Several general correlation patterns are shown in this paper which give exact F tests in an ANOVA procedure with dependent observations. This paper presents the most general correlation patterns one can assume in a one-way and two-way layout and still have the F tests be valid. Exact F tests are given for various designs. These include the unbalanced ANOVA design, analysis of covariance, random effects models, and mixed models. Bartlett's test for homogeneity of variances is shown to be exact when the independence assumption is relaxed. An example is provided to illustrate how the general correlation can occur in an experimental design.     

Selection of variables in exploratory factor analysis: An empirical comparison of a stepwise and traditional approach

The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the performance of a stepwise variable selection algorithm to traditional exploratory factor analysis. The Monte Carlo study included six factors in the design; the number of common factors; the number of variables explained by the common factors; the magnitude of factor loadings; the number of variables not explained by the common factors; the type of anomaly evidenced by the poorly explained variables; and sample size. The performance of the methods was evaluated in terms of selection and pattern accuracy, and bias and root mean squared error of the structure coefficients. Results indicate that the stepwise algorithm was generally ineffective at excluding anomalous variables from the factor model. The poor selection accuracy of the stepwise approach suggests that it should be avoided.     

Approximate sample size formulas for the two‐sample trimmed mean test with unequal variances

Yuen's two‐sample trimmed mean test statistic is one of the most robust methods to apply when variances are heterogeneous. The present study develops formulas for the sample size required for the test. The formulas are applicable for the cases of unequal variances, non‐normality and unequal sample sizes. Given the specified α and the power (1?β), the minimum sample size needed by the proposed formulas under various conditions is less than is given by the conventional formulas. Moreover, given a specified size of sample calculated by the proposed formulas, simulation results show that Yuen's test can achieve statistical power which is generally superior to that of the approximate t test. A numerical example is provided.     

Knowing that I didn't know: preschoolers' understanding of their own false belief is a predictor of assents to fictitious events

The present study examines the relation between children's theory of mind abilities and their tendency to assent to fictitious events when questioned repeatedly across interviews. Children between the ages of 3 and 6 years were interviewed individually either four or seven times about a fictitious and a real staged event, and in addition given a false belief test as well as a fantasy‐reality distinction test. Children's performance on the false belief task addressing the understanding of their own false belief was a better predictor for assents to false events than was understanding the false belief of another person, age, number of interviews and performance on a fantasy‐reality distinction task. Children's memory for a staged event showed that repeated questions across interviews was related to a decrease in correct assents to having experienced a staged event, an increase in wrong yes‐responses about touch and erroneously mentioning names of children who had not been present during the staged event. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Performance evaluation of recent information criteria for selecting multilevel models in Behavioral and Social Sciences

This study was designed to find the best strategy for selecting the correct multilevel model among several alternatives taking into account variables such as intraclass correlation, number of groups (m), group size (n), or others as parameter values and intercept-slope covariance. First, we examine this question in a simulation study and second, to illustrate the behavior of the criteria and to explore the generalizability of the findings, a previously published educational dataset is analyzed. The results showed that none of the selection criteria behaved correctly under all the conditions or was consistently better than the others. The intraclass correlation somewhat affects the performance of all selection criteria, but the extent of this influence is relatively minor compared to sample size, parameter values, and correlation between random effects. A large number of groups appears more important than a large number of individuals per group in selecting the best model (m ≥ 50 and n ≥ 20 is suggested). Finally, model selection tools such as Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) or the conditional AIC are recommend when it is assumed that random effects are correlated, whereas use of the Schwarz's Bayesian Information Criterion or the consistent AIC are advantageous for uncorrelated random effects.     

The estimation of variance-covariance and correlation matrices from incomplete data

Employing simulated data, several methods for estimating correlation and variance-covariance matrices are studied for observations missing at random from data matrices. The effect of sample size, number of variables, percent of missing data and average intercorrelations of variables are examined for several proposed methods.The author is indebted to Professors Leonard A. Marascuilo, Gus W. Haggstrom, especially Henry F. Kaiser for their invaluable suggestions throughout this work. Appreciation is also extended to the Computer Center facility of the University of California at Berkeley for the use of computer time to complete the necessary computations.     

Robust step‐down tests for multivariate independent group designs

A composite step‐down procedure, in which a set of step‐down tests are summarized collectively with Fisher's combination statistic, was considered to test for multivariate mean equality in two‐group designs. An approximate degrees of freedom (ADF) composite procedure based on trimmed/Winsorized estimators and a non‐pooled estimate of error variance is proposed, and compared to a composite procedure based on trimmed/Winsorized estimators and a pooled estimate of error variance. The step‐down procedures were also compared to Hotelling's T² and Johansen's ADF global procedure based on trimmed estimators in a simulation study. Type I error rates of the pooled step‐down procedure were sensitive to covariance heterogeneity in unbalanced designs; error rates were similar to those of Hotelling's T² across all of the investigated conditions. Type I error rates of the ADF composite step‐down procedure were insensitive to covariance heterogeneity and less sensitive to the number of dependent variables when sample size was small than error rates of Johansen's test. The ADF composite step‐down procedure is recommended for testing hypotheses of mean equality in two‐group designs except when the data are sampled from populations with different degrees of multivariate skewness.     

Conversation and remembering: Bartlett revisited

Bartlett's book Remembering (1932) is frequently cited as a major forerunner of the information processing approach to memory and cognition. This approach has itself been criticized by one of its founders, Ulric Neisser (1982), for its narrowness and artificiality compared with the nature of remembering in natural contexts. A re-examination of Bartlett's work demonstrates that it offers little basis for an information processing approach, but rather that it offers the foundation of a much broader, culturally contextualized and functional approach to the study of everyday remembering. Three particular themes are discussed: the integration of social judgements and affective reactions with cognition, the role of conventional symbols in the coding and communication of experience, and the importance of conversational discourse. Bartlett's best-known studies, involving the method of serial reproduction, are shown to be microcosmic demonstrations of the process that he was most concerned with—that of conventionalization of symbols rather than of the workings of an individual's memory. It is argued, again beginning with Bartlett, that everyday remembering may be most fruitfully studied in terms of its personal and social functions, and particularly through its realization in discourse.     

Coding Counsellor Behaviour in Motivational Interviewing Sessions: Inter‐Rater Reliability for the Swedish Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity Code (MITI)

The aim of this study was to evaluate inter‐rater reliability when using the Swedish version of the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Code (MITI) as an adjunct to MI training, clinical practice and research. Coders were trained to use the MITI for scoring taped sessions. The 4‐month basic training had a duration of 39 hours. Following training, 60 audio‐taped live interviews were randomly assigned for MITI coding. Mean intra‐class correlation (ICC) coefficients were calculated for 7 coders across all pairs of coders. Cronbach's alpha was calculated to estimate the covariance between each pair across their common interviews. Six months later, a second inter‐rater reliability test was performed, when 5 coders coded the same 15 randomly selected tapes. At the second reliability testing the mean ICC was 0.81 and the mean Cronbach's alpha was 0.96. However, the ICC varied for different sub‐variables of the MITI, ranging from 0.42 empathy to 0.79 for number of Closed questions. In conclusion, MITI shows promising potential to be a reliable tool to confirm and enhance MI training as well as practice in clinical settings and in evaluating MI integrity in clinical MI research. However, coder assessment of empathy and MI‐spirit, “global” variables, requires further refinement.     

Evidence for the Big Five in analyses of familiar English personality adjectives

Studies of the natural language are a prime source of the Big-Five model, yet the factor analysis of a large, representative, and non-clustered set of English-language personality adjectives in a large sample has not yet been published. In order to test the hypothesis that finding the Big Five depends on biasing the variable selection with an investigator's preferred non-familiar terms, we present the factor analysis of 435 familiar adjectives in a combined sample (N=899) of 507 self- and 392 peer ratings. The five-factor solution reproduced the Big Five with high clarity, demonstrating generally very high correlations with Goldberg's adjective markers of the Big Five. The Intellect factor had a more moderate correlation, due to its de-emphasis of the creativity components of Factor V, a phenomenon that may occur commonly with the lexical Intellect factor.     

Career adaptability and academic satisfaction: Examining work volition and self efficacy as mediators

The present study examined the relation between the four components of career adaptability – concern, control, curiosity, and confidence (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) – and academic satisfaction. Drawing from a diverse sample of 412 undergraduate students, all four components moderately correlated with academic satisfaction. In an effort to explain these relations, work volition and career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) were examined as potential mediator variables. Using structural equation modeling, work volition significantly mediated the control to satisfaction relation and CDSE significantly mediated the concern, control, and confidence to satisfaction relations. After including all variables in the model, none of the career adaptability components significantly related with academic satisfaction. These results suggest that for undergraduate students, feeling adaptable in one's career may link to greater levels of academic satisfaction due, in part, to greater feelings of control and confidence in one's career decision making.