Individual and group differences in intelligence and speed of information processing

A battery of eight different reaction time (RT) tests, measuring the speed with which individuals perform various elementary cognitive processes, and a group test of scholastic aptitude (the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, ASVAB) were given to 50 black and 56 white male vocational college students. The regression of the general factor scores of the ASVAB on the RT measures yielded a shrunken multiple correlation of 0.465. Although discriminant analyses, when applied separately to the ASVAB subtests and to the RT variables, showed highly comparable overall discrimination (over 70% correct classification) between the black and white groups, factor scores derived from the general factor (labeled ‘speed of information processing’) of the RT battery show only about one-third as large a mean black-white difference as the mean group difference on the general factor scores derived from the ASVAB. Comparisons were also made between the 106 vocational college students and 100 university students of higher average academic aptitude who had previously been tested on the same RT battery (Vernon, 1983a). These groups showed marked differences on the RT variables, the largest differences occuring on the tests that required more complex cognitive processing. The more complex RT tests also correlate most highly with the psychometric measures of ability within each group. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that individual differences and the mean differences between groups in psychometric abilities and scholastic achievement are related to differences in the speed of information processing as measured in elementary cognitive tasks.     

An other perspective on personality: meta-analytic integration of observers' accuracy and predictive validity

The bulk of personality research has been built from self-report measures of personality. However, collecting personality ratings from other-raters, such as family, friends, and even strangers, is a dramatically underutilized method that allows better explanation and prediction of personality's role in many domains of psychology. Drawing hypotheses from D. C. Funder's (1995) realistic accuracy model about trait and information moderators of accuracy, we offer 3 meta-analyses to help researchers and applied psychologists understand and interpret both consistencies and unique insights afforded by other-ratings of personality. These meta-analyses integrate findings based on 44,178 target individuals rated across 263 independent samples. Each meta-analysis assessed the accuracy of observer ratings, as indexed by interrater consensus/reliability (Study 1), self-other correlations (Study 2), and predictions of behavior (Study 3). The results show that although increased frequency of interacting with targets does improve accuracy in rating personality, informants' interpersonal intimacy with the target is necessary for substantial increases in other-rating accuracy. Interpersonal intimacy improved accuracy especially for traits low in visibility (e.g., Emotional Stability) but only minimally for traits high in evaluativeness (e.g., Agreeableness). In addition, observer ratings were strong predictors of behaviors. When the criterion was academic achievement or job performance, other-ratings yielded predictive validities substantially greater than and incremental to self-ratings. These findings indicate that extraordinary value can gained by using other-reports to measure personality, and these findings provide guidelines toward enriching personality theory. Various subfields of psychology in which personality variables are systematically assessed and utilized in research and practice can benefit tremendously from use of others' ratings to measure personality variables.     

Individual differences in achieving tendency: Review of evidence bearing on a questionnaire measure

The Mehrabian Achieving Tendency Scale (MATS) provides a broad-scoped assessment of individual characteristics associated with achievement. The MATS is highly reliable and reasonably free of response bias. It correlated negatively with various measures of general (trait) anxiety and fear of success. The MATS successfully predicted performance in situations approximating real-life tests of work and school performance and academic attitudes (e.g., level of aspiration, interest and satisfaction, leadership and initiative). The MATS also predicted occupational choice and occupational/organizational commitment and attractive/appropriate self-presentation. Within a general model of personality and temperament, the MATS was shown to consist primarily of trait dominance and secondarily of trait pleasure. The model successfully predicted relationships of the MATS with a variety of personality measures.     

Personality and Cognitive Ability as Predictors of Typical and Maximum Managerial Performance

Despite long-established distinctions between typical and maximum performance variables on both the predictor and criterion side, little previous research has directly addressed the extent to which these distinctions translate into differential predictor-criterion relationships. Using a sample of candidates for managerial positions, we examined relations of predictors conceptually linked to typical (i.e., broad, narrow, and compound personality traits) and maximum (i.e., broad and narrow cognitive abilities) performance with corresponding criterion measures (N = 84–873). Supervisory ratings of managerial performance served as the typical performance criterion, whereas maximum performance was assessed via an assessment center. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the distinction between typical and maximum performance. Results also confirmed our hypothesis that cognitive abilities are more strongly correlated with maximum performance than with typical performance and largely supported the expectation of the opposite pattern with personality traits as predictors.     

Specificity Matters: Criterion-Related Validity of Contextualized and Facet Measures of Conscientiousness in Predicting College Student Performance

To enhance the predictive validity of self-report personality measures, 2 distinct ways of increasing specificity of personality measures have been proposed in the literature—contextual specificity (i.e., providing a contextual referent) and content specificity (i.e., focusing on more specific constructs such as the Big Five facets). This study extends this line of research by examining whether there is an optimal way to configure, align, or integrate contextual and content specificity using measures of conscientiousness to predict college student success. A sample of 478 undergraduate students completed 4 measures of conscientiousness that varied in the level of content and contextual specificity. These forms of specificity were crossed to yield 4 distinct measures of conscientiousness. We then evaluated and compared the relative importance and the incremental importance of these different measures in the prediction of academic success. Superior predictive validity was found for both contextualized and facet measures of conscientiousness compared to a measure of global conscientiousness in predicting grade-point average and a broader behavioral criterion of student performance. When contextual and content specificity approaches were compared and combined, we observed the strongest predictive validity when the level of specificity is appropriately matched between predictor and criterion.     

Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from two longitudinal university samples

To what extent and which personality traits predict academic performance was investigated in two longitudinal studies of two British university samples. Academic performance was assessed throughout a three years period and via multiple criteria (e.g., exams and final-year project). In addition several indicators of academic behaviour, e.g., absenteeism, essay writing, tutors’ exam predictions, were also examined with regard to both academic performance and personality traits. In sample 1 (N=70), the Big Five personality factors (Costa & McCrae, 1992)—particularly Neuroticism and Conscientiousness—were found to predict overall final exam marks over and above several academic predictors, accounting for more than 10% of unique variance in overall exam marks. Results suggest that Neuroticism may impair academic performance, while Conscientiousness may lead to higher academic achievement. In sample 2 (N=75) the EPQ-R (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985) was used as the personality measure and results showed the three superfactors were the most powerful predictor of academic performance, accounting for nearly 17% of unique variance in overall exam results. It is demonstrated that (like Neuroctisim) Psychoticism could limit academic success. The present results provide evidence supporting the inclusion of well-established personality measures in academic selection procedures, and run counter to the traditional view of ability measures as the exclusive psychometric correlate of academic performance.     

Motives, values and moral judgments

This study examined McClelland's (1981) hypothesis that operant and respondent measures of personality are orthogonal and assess different dimensions of personality structure. An operant measure of motives, a sentence completion test, and two respondent measures of cognitive schema variables, the Rokeach Value Survey and the Defining issues Test, were administered to 311 subjects. As predicted and in support of McClelland's hypothesis, 69% of the correlations between the respondent measures were significant at the alpha .05 level of probability versus 14% of the correlations between the operant and respondent measures. Further, within the domain of cognitive schema variables, it was theoretically possible to predict which values would correlate with different levels of moral judgment. The findings were discussed in terms. of their implications for person x situation models of social interaction and the prediction of criterion variables from typologies of personality.     

Ability and Personality Predictors of Salary,Perceived Job Success,and Perceived Career Success in the Initial Career Stage

Using longitudinal data from a sample of recent college graduates, we examined the effects of ability (general mental ability and emotional intelligence) and personality (Big Five and proactive personality) on extrinsic (i.e., salary) and intrinsic (i.e., perceived job and career success) indicators of career success. Results from regression analyses indicated that gender, extroversion, and agreeableness were the strongest predictors of salary. Emotional stability and proactive personality predicted perceived job success, while extroversion was significantly related to perceived career success. Neither of the ability measures significantly predicted our indicators of extrinsic or intrinsic career success. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Incremental Validity of Leaderless Group Discussion Ratings Over and Above General Mental Ability and Personality in Predicting Promotion

Leaderless group discussions (LGDs) constitute one of the oldest assessment center exercises. In recent times, their added value has sometimes been questioned in light of trends to streamline assessment centers. The purpose of the present study is to examine the incremental validity of LGD ratings over cognitive ability scores and personality ratings for the prediction of extrinsic career success (i.e., promotion speed and number of promotions). We investigated this issue in the context of the promotion of French naval officers (N = 93) in an academy for high‐level executive positions over a 10‐year period. Results indicated that LGD ratings accounted for incremental variance in the prediction of promotion criterion measures, beyond cognitive ability and personality test scores. These results confirm that LGD ratings provide a unique contribution to the prediction of extrinsic career success in high‐level executive positions.     

Development of a Cyber/Information Technology Knowledge Test for Military Enlisted Technical Training Qualification

An Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Review Panel, with expertise in personnel selection, job classification, psychometrics, and cognitive psychology developed recommendations for changes to the military enlistment test battery. One recommendation was to develop and evaluate a test of cyber/information and communications technology literacy to supplement current ASVAB content. This article summarizes a multiphased Cyber Test development process: (a) a review of information/computer technology literacy definitions and measures, (b) development and pilot testing of a cyber knowledge measure, (c) validation of test scores against final school grades (FSGs) for selected technical training courses, (d) development of an operational reporting metric and subgroup norms, and (e) examination of construct validity. Results indicate the Cyber Test has predictive validity versus technical training school grades and incremental validity comparable to the ASVAB technical knowledge tests when used with the ASVAB Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT) verbal/math composite as a baseline.     

Change driven by nature: A meta-analytic review of the proactive personality literature

This study provides the first comprehensive review of literature examining proactive personality. The authors use career success as a broad organizing framework, meta-analyzing 313 correlations from 107 studies. Results indicate proactive personality is positively related to objective and subjective career success. Further, results indicate proactive personality relates to variables consistent with contest mobility (e.g., job performance) and sponsored mobility (e.g., taking charge/voice behavior) avenues to career success. Proactive personality’s relationship with supervisor-rated overall job performance is particularly noteworthy in that it is stronger than that reported for any of the Big Five factors or the Big Five collectively. Proactive personality is positively related to a variety of employability-related variables (e.g., learning goal orientation, career self-efficacy), four Big Five trait factors (extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and neuroticism), but is unrelated to social desirability. The authors’ literature review indicates only the original 17-item scale and 10-item scale tend to exhibit good internal consistency.     

Evaluation of Tests of Perceptual Speed/Accuracy and Spatial Ability for Use in Military Occupational Classification

With the exception of Assembling Objects (AO), a spatial ability test used only by the Navy in enlisted occupational classification, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) is academic and knowledge-based, somewhat limiting its utility for occupational classification. This article presents the case for integrating the AO test into military classification composites and for expanding the breadth of ASVAB content by including a former ASVAB speed/accuracy test, Coding Speed (CS). Empirical evidence is presented that shows AO and CS (a) increment the validity of the ASVAB in predicting training grades for a broad array of occupations, (b) reduce adverse impact defined as test score barriers for women and minorities, and (c) improve classification in terms of matching recruits to occupations. Some cognitive theory is presented to support AO and CS, as well as nonverbal reasoning and working memory tests for inclusion in or adjuncts to the ASVAB.     

Change driven by nature: A meta-analytic review of the proactive personality literature

This study provides the first comprehensive review of literature examining proactive personality. The authors use career success as a broad organizing framework, meta-analyzing 313 correlations from 107 studies. Results indicate proactive personality is positively related to objective and subjective career success. Further, results indicate proactive personality relates to variables consistent with contest mobility (e.g., job performance) and sponsored mobility (e.g., taking charge/voice behavior) avenues to career success. Proactive personality’s relationship with supervisor-rated overall job performance is particularly noteworthy in that it is stronger than that reported for any of the Big Five factors or the Big Five collectively. Proactive personality is positively related to a variety of employability-related variables (e.g., learning goal orientation, career self-efficacy), four Big Five trait factors (extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and neuroticism), but is unrelated to social desirability. The authors’ literature review indicates only the original 17-item scale and 10-item scale tend to exhibit good internal consistency.     

Beyond cognitive ability: Improving the prediction of performance

New measures of practical intelligence and personality traits were assessed for their ability to improve the prediction of performance beyond cognitive ability. Measures of practical intelligence from the newly developed Constructive Thinking Inventory and traits measuring emotional stability and expedience were used as independent variables in regression analyses predicting academic performance, training performance and leadership ratings of 86 student leaders. The constructive thinking scales added significantly to the prediction of academic performance, beyond measures of cognitive ability. Constructive thinking also accounted for unique variance predicting training performance and leadership ratings. Personality traits were unrelated to performance or leadership.     

Plasticity of memory for new learning in very old age: a story of major loss?

Longitudinal survivors of the Berlin Aging Study (N = 96, mean age = 84 years, range 75-101 years) were instructed and trained in a mnemonic skill to examine plasticity of episodic memory performance in very old age. Performance gains after mnemonic instruction were modest, and most individuals were unable to further enhance their performance during 4 sessions of mnemonic practice. Whereas the proportion of variance explained by measures from the broad fluid-ability domain (e.g., perceptual speed) increased with training, the proportion of variance explained by crystallized-ability domain (e.g., word knowledge) and sociobiographical variables decreased. Furthermore, prior 6-year longitudinal changes (loss) in perceptual speed predicted individual differences in plasticity. Results suggest that aging-induced biological factors are a prominent source of individual differences in cognitive plasticity in very old age.     

Comparing Personality Test Formats and Warnings: Effects on criterion‐related validity and test‐taker reactions

The potential for applicant response distortion on personality measures remains a major concern in high‐stakes testing situations. Many approaches to understanding response distortion are too transparent (e.g., instructed faking studies) – or are too subtle (e.g., correlations with social desirability measures as indices of faking). Recent research reveals more promising approaches in two methods: using forced‐choice (FC) personality test items and warning against faking. The present study examined effects of these two methods on criterion‐related validity and test‐taker reactions. Results supported incremental validity for an FC and Likert‐scale measure in warning and no‐warning conditions, above and beyond cognitive ability. No clear differences emerged between the FC vs Likert measures or warning vs no‐warning conditions in terms of validity. However, some evidence suggested that FC measures and warnings may produce negative test‐taker reactions. We conclude with implications for implementation in selection settings.     

PERSONALITY AND COGNITIVE ABILITY AS PREDICTORS OF JOB SEARCH AMONG EMPLOYED MANAGERS

Research on employee job search and separation traditionally focuses on situationally specific variables. Such variables may change with particular employment situations (e.g., job tenure, salary, perceived organizational success), they may be differentially relevant to work situations over time (e.g., education), or may reflect individual reactions to particular work situations (e.g., job satisfaction). More enduring individual characteristics, particularly personality and cognitive ability, may affect job search in consistent ways across different situations, but to date we have little empirical research on those effects. The present study extends traditional job search investigations by incorporating these two enduring individual characteristics–personality and cognitive ability. The value of these two enduring individual characteristics, in predicting job search, is then tested on a sample of U.S. executives. Cognitive ability as well as the personality dimensions of Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience related positively to job search. These effects remained even in the presence of an array of situational factors previously shown to affect search. The relationship between Extroversion and job search became significant and positive in the presence of situational factors, particularly job satisfaction. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

Cognitive aspects of chronic depression

Previous research on chronic depression has focused on its link with other mood disorders and Axis II personality disorders. However, there are few data examining whether the cognitive perspective applies to this condition. In this cross-sectional study, 42 outpatients with chronic depression were compared with 27 outpatients with nonchronic major depressive disorder and 24 never psychiatrically ill controls on cognitive variables thought to be related to vulnerability to depression (e.g., dysfunctional attitudes, attributional style, a ruminative response style, and maladaptive core beliefs). Both depressed groups were more elevated than a never-ill comparison group. However, chronically depressed individuals were generally more elevated on measures of cognitive variables than those with major depressive disorders even after controlling for mood state and personality disorder symptoms.     

Alternative Techniques for Predicting Success in Air Controller School

The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) is the principal cognitive test battery used for military classification-that is, for assignment of individuals to specific job categories. Successful entrance into a specific job category requires satisfactory completion of relevant training. Therefore, it is necessary that the ASVAB accurately predict the likelihood that individuals will complete training. Presently, the U.S. Navy classifies enlisted personnel based on a unit-weighted linear combination of scores derived from a subset of tests currently composing the ASVAB test battery. This research explored the development of new classification models estimated by using linear regression, logistic regression, discriminant analysis, and artificial neural networks, and it compared their classification accuracy with models developed using unit- weighted regression. Models were estimated and cross-validated using data from individuals admitted into the Navy's Air Controlman training during fiscal years 1988 and 1989. Accuracy was measured by the proportion of individuals correctly classified as graduates or as academic failures and by the ability to rank students-that is, to predict the highest scores for graduates and the lowest scores for attrites.