Assessment of Problematic Situations and Coping Strategies in Women with Eating Disorders: Initial Validation of a Situation-Specific Problem Inventory

The current study examined the psychometric properties of the Anorexia and Bulimia Problem Inventory (ABPI; Eason, 1983) in women with and without diagnosed eating disorders. The ABPI was initially constructed in accordance with the Behavior-Analytic model of instrument development (Goldfried & D'Zurilla, 1969). In this investigation, the ABPI was refined to consist of 38 audiotaped problematic situations, including those related to eating and weight, academic, family, and interpersonal relationship issues, and scoring criteria to rate the effectiveness of responses. Convergent and discriminant validity were established between ABPI-R scores and the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner, Olmsted, & Polivy, 1983) scales. As evidence of disciminative validity women with eating disorders received less ratings indicating less effective problem-solving on the ABPI-R scales than women without eating disorders. A significant increase in effective coping as measured by the ABPI-R was found for women following an 8-week outpatient eating disorders treatment program. Potential uses of this measure in research and clinical practice are discussed.     

Personality and affectivity characteristics associated with eating disorders: a comparison of eating disordered, weight-preoccupied, and normal samples.

The purpose of this study was to assess the relative contribution of personality and emotional experience to self-reported eating attitudes in a group of patients with clinically diagnosed eating disorders, a weight-reduction training group (Weight Watchers), and a control group without body weight problems. Participants in this study (N = 114) completed Estonian versions of the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2; Garner, 1991), NEO Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1989), and Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule, Expanded Form (Watson & Clark, 1994). Data demonstrated validity of the Estonian version of EDI-2 in its ability to identify problems on a continuum of disordered eating behavior. Among the Big Five personality dimensions, Neuroticism made the largest contribution to EDI-2 subscales. Two other dimensions, Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness, also predispose individuals to eating problems. Personality traits made a larger contribution to the self-reported eating pathology than the self-rated effects experienced during the last few weeks. It was argued that personality dispositions have a larger relevancy in the etiology of eating disorders than emotional state.     

Eating disorders and dieting behavior among Australian and Swazi university students

The eating behaviors of 192 Australian and 129 Swaziland university students were examined by using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26; D. M. Garner, M. P. Olmsted, Y. Bohr, & P. E. Garfinkel, 1982). The results did not support the hypothesis that more Australian students than Swazi students would display eating disorder symptoms. Australian women scored significantly higher than Australian men. Surprisingly, scores on the EAT-26 for men and women from Swaziland did not differ significantly. Furthermore, there was little difference between the scores of Swazi men and either Australian women or Swazi women. Results are discussed in relation to various cultural factors and assessment issues.     

Personality and Campus Controversies: Preferred Boundaries as a Function of Openness to Experience

We explored the relationship between the “big five” personality factors of the Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness–Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985) and students' endorsement of two locally controversial activities—a Halloween street festival and the university's intercollegiate football program. Consistent with opponents' views of the kinds of students who take part in the Halloween street party, those who favored this activity scored low on agreeableness but high on openness to experience. Those who favored continuance of the football program scored low on openness. Results are discussed in terms of preferences for boundaries and structure within environments. The results add to the construct validity of the NEO–PI and to understanding of the openness construct.     

The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26): reliability and validity in Spanish female samples

This paper focuses on the validation of the Spanish form of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26; Garner, Olmsted, Bohr & Garfinkel, 1982) across two studies. Participants in Study 1 were 778 females recruited from community settings (aged 12-21). Study 2 included 86 females recruited from clinical and 86 females from community settings (aged 12-35). Results from Principal and Simultaneous Component Analyses showed a unidimensional structure of the EAT-26 item scores. Reliability analyses supported the internal consistency of the scale. Study 1 also explores the ability of the EAT-26 to discriminate between subjects with Eating Disorder (ED), Symptomatic or Asymptomatic by means of ROC analyses and using results from the Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Q-EDD; Mintz, O'Halloran, Mulholland, & Schneider, 1997) as criterion. The EAT-26 demonstrated good specificity but insufficient sensitivity to detect a full or partial ED. Study 2 explores the ability of the questionnaire to discriminate between subjects with and without ED. The EAT-26 demonstrated good specificity and moderate sensitivity to detect ED. Clinical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Disordered Eating Attitudes and Self-Objectification Among Physically Active and Sedentary Female College Students

The authors' purpose in this study was to examine objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) among physically active (n = 115) and sedentary (n = 70) women. The women completed the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998), the Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996), the Appearance Anxiety Scale (Dion, Dion, & J. Keelan, 1990), a flow experiences measure (Tiggemann & Slater, 2001), and the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982). Self-objectification directly and indirectly (via body shame and appearance anxiety) predicted disordered eating in both groups of women. Physically active women reported more frequent flow experiences than sedentary women. Women high in self-objectification reported higher levels of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, and self-reported disordered eating attitudes. Body surveillance was related to disordered eating only among women with high self-objectification. Appearance anxiety was negatively associated with flow experiences among sedentary women. Objectification theory provides a useful framework for understanding factors related to disordered eating attitudes among active and sedentary college women.     

MCMI-II profiles of women with eating disorders: a cluster analytic investigation

A three-factor model of personality pathology was investigated in a clinical sample of 183 female patients in an outpatient eating disorders treatment program. Cluster analysis of MCMI-II personality scales (Millon, 1987) yielded three distinct personality profiles, which were consistent with previous studies. First, 16.9% of the sample comprised a High Functioning cluster, which manifested no clinical elevations on the MCMI-II and had significantly lower scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner; 1991) scales than the other two clusters. Second, 49.1% of the sample comprised an Undercontrolled/Dysregulated cluster. Finally, the remaining 34% of the sample comprised an Overcontrolled/Avoidant cluster. This final cluster had significantly higher EDI Ineffectiveness scale scores than the Undercontrolled/Dysregulated cluster group. Cluster membership was not associated with eating disorder subtype, suggesting that there is considerable variance in personality pathology within eating disorder diagnostic categories.     

Eating Disorders Among Urban and Rural African American and European American Women

Abstract

It is alleged that eating disorders are nonexistent in African American women and that eating disorder symptomatology occurs predominantly among White middle class women (Kumanyika, Wilson, & Guilford-Davenport, 1993; Smolak & Striegel-Moore, 2001). This research attempted to identify differences in eating disorder symptomatology in African American and White American women. An eating disorder is a disability because it can damage the person physically, emotionally and socially. It can be undetected for years and society may reinforce the hidden disorder by being complimentary regarding the thin appearance of the person. The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) was used to measure psychological traits and symptom clusters associated with the understanding and treatment of eating disorders (Garner, 1990). Measures of self-esteem, depression and coping were also examined. Findings indicated differences between African American and White women on the Ineffectiveness scale of the EDI, differences between the urban/rural women on Ineffectiveness and Perfectionism, and differences in coping strategies and education among this sample group of women. Successful treatment usually involves psychotherapy and/or medication for depression.     

Adolescent attitudes toward body image and anorexic behavior

This study explored the relationship between anorexic behavior and selected dimensions of body image. Anorexic behavior was assessed by two scales, the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT 26) (Garner, Olmstead, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982) and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983). Predictor variables, selected dimensions of body image, physical attractiveness, self-esteem, and physical effectiveness, were measured by scales adapted by Lerner and Karabenick (1974) and Lerner, Orlos, and Knapp (1976). Multiple regression techniques were used to determine how much of the tendency toward anorexic behavior can be predicted by selected dimensions of body image. The major focus of the analysis was to explore the contributions of each of the dimensions of body image to predicting tendencies toward anorexic behavior in adolescents. The research sample consisted of 169 high school students, aged 15 to 18, who were enrolled in health, physical education, or psychology classes in the spring of 1983. Results indicated that the dimension of self-esteem was the major factor in the prediction of anorexic behaviors as measured by the Eating Disorders Inventory.     

A psychometric evaluation of the new NEO-PIR facet scales for agreeableness and conscientiousness

The five-factor model of personality represents one of the more important developments in the area of personality theory and assessment. This empirically derived model consists of the major factors of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Currently there is only one commercially available measure of these dimensions: The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI). The NEO-PI measures each of these global domains as well as more specific facets of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience. The new revision of the NEO-PI (NEO-PIR) now includes facet scales for Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. The purpose of this article is to provide a psychometric evaluation of these new scales using a sample of working adults and relying on both self-report and observer ratings. The results provide strong support for the reliability and construct validity of these new scales.     

DSM-III-R personality disorders and the five-factor model of personality: an empirical comparison.

The relationship between the five-factor model (FFM) of personality and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (rev. 3rd ed.; DSM-III-R) personality disorders was examined in a sample of 54 psychiatric outpatients. Correlations between raw scores on the NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) and the number of DSM-III-R personality disorder symptoms rated present using a semistructured interview were computed. In addition, correlations between NEO-PI scores and scores on two self-report personality disorder inventories were also examined to determine which results replicated across instruments. Results indicated that the FFM personality dimensions of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness were most apparent in the DSM-III-R conceptualizations of the personality disorders.     

Dietary restraint as values-related motivation: a psychometric clarification

Psychological motivation toward dietary restraint can be measured by Cognitive Restraint, a subscale on the Three-factor Questionnaire (TFQ; Stunkard & Messick, 1985), and Drive for Thinness, a subscale on the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner & Olmstead, 1984). On the basis of data obtained from American undergraduates, these two scales correlated significantly (r = .55); three value scales on the Eating Values Survey (EVS; Simmons, 1989) also correlated significantly with both Cognitive Restraint and Drive for Thinness (Appearance and Manners positively, Enthusiasm negatively). Correlations of other TFQ and EDI scales with values were minimal. Personal values specific to eating are discussed as components of a general motivational orientation toward self-management of eating but as relatively unrelated to such disruptive attributes of eating behavior as disinhibition or bulimia.     

A Psychometric Evaluation of the New NEO–PIR Facet Scales for Agreeableness and Conscientiousness

The five-factor model of personality represents one of the more important developments in the area of personality theory and assessment. This empirically derived model consists of the major factors of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Currently there is only one commercially available measure of these dimensions: The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI). The NEO-PI measures each of these global domains as well as more specific facets of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience. The new revision of the NEO-PI (NEO-PIR) now includes facet scales for Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. The purpose of this article is to provide a psychometric evaluation of these new scales using a sample of working adults and relying on both self-report and observer ratings. The results provide strong support for the reliability and construct validity of these new scales.     

Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism dimensions and their associations with disordered eating

This study examined the relationship between self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism (using two measures of perfectionism) and disordered eating assessed across multiple time points in a sample of young women. Study participants (n=406) reported on their levels of perfectionism and on their subsequent patterns of dieting and bulimic symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was strongly linked to dietary restraint, whether using the theoretically derived perfectionism dimensions from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) [Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991a). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] or the dimensions derived from the Perfectionism subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) [Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34]. A less clear-cut pattern emerged when bulimic symptoms were investigated, with both self-oriented (MPS and EDI) and socially prescribed perfectionism (MPS) being associated with bulimic symptoms. After controlling for negative affect, only a self-oriented dimension of perfectionism predicted unique variance in bulimic symptoms. What constitutes maladaptive perfectionism, concerns about using EDI-Perfectionism dimensions interchangeably with MPS dimensions, and future directions are discussed.     

Subscales of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale differentially relate to the Big Five factors of personality

The place of impulsiveness in multidimensional personality frameworks is still unclear. In particular, no consensus has yet been reached with regard to the relation of impulsiveness to Neuroticism and Extraversion. We aim to contribute to a clearer understanding of these relationships by accounting for the multidimensional structure of impulsiveness. In three independent studies, we related the subscales of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS) to the Big Five factors of personality. Study 1 investigated the associations between the BIS subscales and the Big Five factors as measured by the NEO Five‐Factor Inventory (NEO‐FFI) in a student sample (N = 113). Selective positive correlations emerged between motor impulsiveness and Extraversion and between attentional impulsiveness and Neuroticism. This pattern of results was replicated in Study 2 (N = 132) using a 10‐item short version of the Big Five Inventory. In Study 3, we analyzed BIS and NEO‐FFI data obtained from a sample of patients with pathological buying (N = 68). In these patients, the relationship between motor impulsiveness and Extraversion was significantly weakened when compared to the non‐clinical samples. At the same time, the relationship between attentional impulsiveness and Neuroticism was substantially stronger in the clinical sample. Our studies highlight the utility of the BIS subscales for clarifying the relationship between impulsiveness and the Big Five personality factors. We conclude that impulsiveness might occupy multiple places in multidimensional personality frameworks, which need to be specified to improve the interpretability of impulsiveness scales.     

College women: eating behaviors and help-seeking preferences

Late adolescent women at a large, mid-Atlantic university were surveyed. Of the 578 who completed the survey, 17% were found to have eating disorders as defined by a score of 20 or above on the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26; Garner, Olmstead, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982). Participants who scored 20 or above were younger and more likely to be white, in a sorority, and Christian than were those who scored below 20 on the EAT-26. No correlation was found between EAT-26 scores and participation in organized athletics. In addition, the participants were asked about their choice of help and support should they have any worries about their eating. They were most likely to say that they would prefer a close friend to support them when dealing with disordered eating, followed by their parents and their significant other. In terms of professional services, most women reported that they would prefer individual assistance such as a consultation with a physician, a nutritionist, or a therapist, followed by family therapy, if they ever had questions about eating or thought they needed professional help with disordered eating.     

The factor structure and criterion validity of the short form of the Eating Attitudes Test.

One of the more frequently used measures of eating disorders is the 40-item Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) developed by Garner and Garfinkel (1979). Although originally designed to diagnose anorexia nervosa, the test has recently been applied to nonclinical populations also. In this study, we examined psychometric and validity data for a short version of the scale, the EAT-26. Using a sample of 809 female soldiers in their late teens, results showed that the EAT-26 is reliable, the factor structure is different from that obtained in clinical groups, and the EAT-26 is significantly correlated with body image, weight, and diet.     

Body Dissatisfaction,Need for Social Approval,and Eating Disturbances Among Japanese and American College Women

A total of 171 Japanese and 144 American collegewomen (90% European American, 4% African American, 4%Asian or Asian American, and 2% other) completed theEating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the Body Dissatisfaction Subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory(EDI), and the Revised Martin-Larsen Approval MotivationScale (MLAM). Japanese women expressed the greaterdissatisfaction with their body but no more eatingdisturbances than American women. The need for socialapproval predicted the Japanese women's eatingdisturbances after controlling for the effects of bodyfatness (BMI) and body dissatisfaction. BMI was asignificant predictor of eating disturbances for Americanwomen but not for Japanese women. The results werediscussed in terms of their implications forcross-cultural similarities and differences incorrelates of disordered eating.     

An evaluation of the reliability and construct validity of eating disorder measures in White and Black women

Most measures of eating disorder symptoms and risk factors were developed in predominantly White female samples. Yet eating disorders affect individuals of all racial and ethnic backgrounds. Black women appear more vulnerable to certain forms of eating pathology, such as binge eating, and less susceptible to other eating disorder symptoms and risk factors, such as body dissatisfaction, compared with their White peers. Despite concern that extant measures do not adequately assess eating concerns among Black women, the construct validity of scores on most of these measures has not been adequately examined within this population. This study included 2,208 Black and White women who completed the following: the Binge Eating Scale (BES), the Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale (EDDS), the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26), the Eating Disorder Inventory Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness subscales, the Bulimia Test-Revised (BULIT-R), the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Evaluation subscale (MBSRQ-AE), and the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS). Most measures yielded internally consistent scores in both races. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that loadings for some measures, including the EAT-26 and EDDS, were not invariant across groups and thus do not assess equivalent constructs in White and Black women. However, others, including the BULIT-R, BES, OBCS, and MBSRQ-AE, exhibited factorial invariance in both races. Results suggest scores are likely not equivalent across races for several popular measures of eating disorder symptoms and risk factors. Thus, it is recommended that researchers and clinicians obtain additional information regarding racial/cultural factors when using these instruments with Black women.     

Disordered eating attitudes and self-objectification among physically active and sedentary female college students

The authors' purpose in this study was to examine objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) among physically active (n=115) and sedentary (n=70) women. The women completed the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998), the Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996), the Appearance Anxiety Scale (Dion, Dion, & J. Keelan, 1990), a flow experiences measure (Tiggemann & Slater, 2001), and the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982). Self-objectification directly and indirectly (via body shame and appearance anxiety) predicted disordered eating in both groups of women. Physically active women reported more frequent flow experiences than sedentary women. Women high in self-objectification reported higher levels of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, and self-reported disordered eating attitudes. Body surveillance was related to disordered eating only among women with high self-objectification. Appearance anxiety was negatively associated with flow experiences among sedentary women. Objectification theory provides a useful framework for understanding factors related to disordered eating attitudes among active and sedentary college women.