The Perceived Leadership Communication Questionnaire (PLCQ): Development and Validation

The Perceived Leadership Communication Questionnaire (PLCQ) is a short, reliable, and valid instrument for measuring leadership communication from both perspectives of the leader and the follower. Drawing on a communication-based approach to leadership and following a theoretical framework of interpersonal communication processes in organizations, this article describes the development and validation of a one-dimensional 6-item scale in four studies (total N = 604). Results from Study 1 and 2 provide evidence for the internal consistency and factorial validity of the PLCQ's self-rating version (PLCQ-SR)—a version for measuring how leaders perceive their own communication with their followers. Results from Study 3 and 4 show internal consistency, construct validity, and criterion validity of the PLCQ's other-rating version (PLCQ-OR)—a version for measuring how followers perceive the communication of their leaders. Cronbach's α had an average of.80 over the four studies. All confirmatory factor analyses yielded good to excellent model fit indices. Convergent validity was established by average positive correlations of.69 with subdimensions of transformational leadership and leader–member exchange scales. Furthermore, nonsignificant correlations with socially desirable responding indicated discriminant validity. Last, criterion validity was supported by a moderately positive correlation with job satisfaction (r =.31).     

Muslim-Christian Religious Orientation Scales: Distinctions,Correlations, and Cross-Cultural Analysis in Iran and the United States

Allport and Ross (1967) Religious Orientation Scales were administered along with nine new Muslim-Christian Religious Orientation Scales (MCROS) to students in Iran and the United States. Religious extrinsicness was associated with self-reported symptoms of psychological disturbance; with the Iranians, intrinsicness predicted adjustment. Most relations among the religious variables were positive with the two samples displaying similar, though not identical, patterns of correlations. Factor analysis of all religious scales in each sample separately yielded two components suggesting Allport's differentiation between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. In both samples, partial correlations and multiple regressions were used to remove variance associated with the Allport and Ross scales, and at least some evidence testified to the incremental validity of each MCROS measure in predicting psychological symptoms and the other MCROS variables. Most important, this first systematic, empirical study of the psychology of religion in Iran confirmed the relevance of Allport's thought for understanding Muslim religion and established an empirical foundation for further explorations of the MCROS.     

Assessing Leadership Potential with a Biographical Measure of Personality Traits

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of biographical inventories free of the limitations common to many current biographical measures by constructing and validating an inventory composed of homogeneous scales, with item content that is factual and fair, to assess personality traits predictive of leadership. The experimental inventory, with tentative scales for Dominance, Emotional Stability, Need for Achievement, Self-Confidence, and Sociability, was administered to incoming midshipmen at the US Naval Academy and item analyzed. The validity of the final scales was appraised against subsequent peer ratings of the traits and of leadership shortly after entering the Academy; military performance grades, and midshipman rank and leadership position at the Academy; and recommendations for promotion after graduating and serving as an officer. The Sociability, Dominance, and Need for Achievement scales demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity, and all of the scales except Self-Confidence correlated with the leadership criteria. The Sociability scale’s consistent correlations with several of the leadership criteria, including a nontrivial correlation (r = 0.28) with the leadership peer rating, implies that this measure may be useful in assessing leadership potential.     

Genetic and environmental structures of personality: A cluster-analysis approach

A cluster analysis was carried out on within-individual and cross-pair correlations among personality questionnaire items for 654 monozygotic and 648 dizygotic twin pairs in an initial sample, and 649 and 649 pairs in a cross-validation sample. The data were from adult Australian twins who had responded in a mail questionnaire to 110 items from two personality inventories. Clustering based on genetic correlations or on unshared environmental correlations among items led to three very similar cross-validated clusters, labeled Emotional, Confident, and Reserved. Unshared environment provided several additional cross-validated clusters. Clusters based on shared environment, on the other hand, failed to cross-validate or to correspond to the clusters from the other two sources.     

Relationships between SVIB nonoccupational scales and achievement for six Holland personality types

The subjects were 432 male freshmen at the University of North Dakota who completed the Vocational Preference Inventory and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Backward stepwise multiple regression was used to determine the relationships of eight SVIB nonoccupational scales to first semester GPA for the total research population and for each Holland personality type. Personality types were determined by using the highest T score among the first six VPI scales. Significant multiple correlations between the SVIB nonoccupational scales and GPA were found for the total research population and for five of the six personality types. For the Enterprising type, the eight SVIB scales failed to predict GPA significantly. The results were discussed in terms of the differential patterns of multiple correlations for the total research population and for the personality types.     

Preliminary acceptability and psychometrics of the infant–toddler social and emotional assessment (ITSEA): A new adult-report questionnaire

The preliminary acceptability, internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and validity of the Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA), a parent-report questionnaire concerning social-emotional problems and competencies, were examined in a sociodemographically diverse pediatric sample of 214 parents of 12- to 36-month-olds. Results supported the ITSEA's acceptability and preliminary internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and validity. Most parents had a positive response to the ITSEA, found the questions easy to understand, and would consider recommending it to a friend. Confirmatory factor analyses supported 16 conceptually hypothesized problem and competence scales. Most scales had strong internal consistency, good to excellent 2-week test–retest reliability, and moderate 1-year test–retest reliability. Significant correlations among ITSEA scales and parent reports of child temperament and problem behaviors supported the ITSEA's validity. Psychometric findings are viewed as preliminary due to the relatively small sample size. Parents reported greater competence and more maladaptive behaviors in older children than younger children. Consistent with observational studies, boys lagged behind girls in certain parent-reported competencies, including empathy, compliance, prosocial peer interactions, and emotional awareness. Parent reports yielded empirically coherent problem and competence scales and domains, suggesting the early emergence of parental perceptions of organized and differentiated clusters of social-emotional behaviors.     

The relative efficacy of predicting IQ from mother-child interactions using ratings versus behavioral count measures

The relative efficacy of using ratings versus behavioral count measures to predict intelligence from mother-child interactions was investigated for 45 mother-child dyads who constituted a heterogeneous sample with respect to socioeconomic status. These dyads were observed when the children were 36 months of age; children were tested with standardized IQ tests at 36 and 60 months. Social interactions between mothers and children were coded from video tapes with two different systems by independent observers. The behavioral count system was used to code second-by-second the duration and frequency of behaviors during the session. The rating system was used to judge maternal behaviors on three scales following the session. A series of forced stepwise multiple regression analyses compared the predictive utility of the two systems both concurrently and over time. The ratings of maternal behavior yielded high correlations with child IQ both concurrently and over time and were not contributed to significantly by the behavioral count measures. The authors speculate that ratings proved more efficacious because the raters could make more subjective and intuitive judgments concerning maternal behavior.     

The Psychometric Properties of Scales That Assess Market Orientation and Team Leadership Skills: A Preliminary Study

This study assessed the psychometric properties of two scales that can be used in predicting team performance: specifically how team members assess the market orientation of their work unit as well the leadership skills present in the team. The first scale is a three-dimensional assessment of the unit's market orientation (innovative, process, or customer service) using 24 items. The other is a three-dimensional scale that assesses team leadership skills (facilitator, coach, and manager) also using 24 items. Fifty-two participants from teams in different organizations completed the two scales as well as demographic and team performance items. Principal components analyses and internal consistency analyses suggest that the two new scales have good psychometric properties. Perceived team performance was related equally well to all three dimensions of unit market orientation, as well as to all three dimensions of team leadership skills. However, all three team leadership skill dimensions had higher correlations with performance as well as with liking being a member of the team than did the three market orientation dimensions. Perceived performance was more highly related to all three dimensions of market orientation and all three dimensions of leadership skills than to liking being a member of the team. The new measures described should be useful in team performance theory, research, and practice.     

An Analysis of the Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the Transformational Leadership Questionnaire

This article sets out to provide evidence of the convergent and discriminant validity of a recently developed leadership questionnaire to support the assessment and development of leadership in organizations, the Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ). The TLQ was developed on the basis of eliciting constructs of leadership from managers working at different levels (executive, top, senior, middle) in two large parts of the UK public sector, using a Grounded Theory approach. Evidence is presented that eight scales which measure different aspects of transformational leadership are significantly correlated with each of five criterion variables, even when the instrument is used in a public sector different from the one in which it was developed. Discriminant analysis indicated, however, that the relationship between the scales and the criterion variables is not consistent for the different groups and sub-groups of managers, divided by level, by sex, and by level x sex. These latter data were interpreted, in the light of the ‘range of convenience’ corollary of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory, and of the concept of ‘substitutes for leadership’, as evidence that certain TLQ scales have particular relevance to certain groups and sub-groups of managers, and thus of the discriminant validity of the instrument, and further evidence of its construct validity.     

Estimation of MCMI DSM-III Axis II Constructs From MMPI Scales and Subscales

Wiggins, Harris and Lingoes, and Serkownek Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scores were used to predict Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MGMI) scores in a 100-patient sample. Equations from the first sample were cross-validated on a sample of 212 inmate subjects. We conclude that scores on 19 of the 20 MCMI scales can be successfully predicted by the Wiggins, Harris and Lingoes, and Serkownek subscales of the MMPI. In further cross-validation, the equations were used to predict the Morey, Waugh, and Blashfield MMPI composites for the prison sample, again with strongly positive results. The results appear quite promising for the estimation of personality disorder constructs from MMPI scales and subscales.     

Estimation of MCMI DSM-III axis II constructs from MMPI scales and subscales

Wiggins, Harris and Lingoes, and Serkownek Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scores were used to predict Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) scores in a 100-patient sample. Equations from the first sample were cross-validated on a sample of 212 inmate subjects. We conclude that scores on 19 of the 20 MCMI scales can be successfully predicted by the Wiggins, Harris and Lingoes, and Serkownek subscales of the MMPI. In further cross-validation, the equations were used to predict the Morey, Waugh, and Blashfield MMPI composites for the prison sample, again with strongly positive results. The results appear quite promising for the estimation of personality disorder constructs from MMPI scales and subscales.     

Transformational Leadership and Pastoral Leader Effectiveness

In this study multiple variables as they relate to pastoral leader effectiveness were examined. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), NEO-Five Factor Inventory (FFI), and Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS) were used to measure the leadership styles, personality, and spirituality of 93 pastors and assess which variable predicted pastoral leadership effectiveness. The results indicated that transformational leadership style showed significant correlations with pastoral leader effectiveness; only one dimension of the MLQ’s transformational leadership scale (individual consideration) was a significant predictor of pastoral leader effectiveness. Other limited findings suggest that personality and spirituality also contributed to pastoral leadership effectiveness.     

Overt and Covert Coparenting Processes in the Family

This article introduces a new self-report instrument designed to measure the frequency of parental behaviors thought to promote or undermine children's sense of family. Members of 103 married couples rated their behavior in both public (all family members present) and private (alone with child) contexts. Factor analyses of these data revealed four distinct factors indexing: behaviors in the service of promoting a sense of Family Integrity; largely covert parent-to-child communications undermining, or conveying Disparagement of, the coparental partner; overt interparental Conflict in the presence of the child; and coparental disciplinary activities (Reprimand). Significant husband-wife correlations were found on each of the four individual subscales. Construct-specific intercorrelations also obtained between like scales on the new measure and on the Family Environment Scale and Quality of Coparenting Scale. Cluster analyses of husbands' and wives' scores on the four Coparenting Scale factors suggested five “types” of coparenting families: Disconnected, Supportive, Average, Distressed-Conflicted, and Passionate. These clusters, along with the value of self-report instruments in assessing coparenting behaviors that may be largely clandestine in nature, are discussed.     

Stability and factor structure of the Jackson Personality Inventory--Revised

The Jackson Personality Inventory--Revised comprises 15 bipolar scales and five cluster scores concerning an individual's interpersonal patterns of interaction, cognitive styles, and value orientation. Recent reviews of this revised version raise questions about test-retest stability as well as the factor structure on which cluster scores are based. 74 men and 33 women (29-63 years of age, M = 42.3) completed the inventory while participating in a continuing education program. Of these 45 participated in a second session 13 wk. later. Test-retest correlations are significant, with 12 of the 15 scales having correlations > or = .75. Intercorrelations among all subscales indicate that the Jackson subscales for the most part remain distinct from each other ranging from .01 to .59. A Principal Components Analysis with a varimax rotation yielded three factors that parallel the NEO big five, i.e., Openness, Neuroticism, and Extroversion and replicated previous factor structure found for both versions of the Jackson inventory. The fourth and fifth factors here were labeled Trustworthy and Organization; however, the composition of these factors across several studies appears to be unstable, suggesting optimal certainty when interpreting the clusters of subscales associated only with Openness, Neuroticism, and Extroversion. Further research may help clarify the instability associated with the other factors of this inventory.     

Principals' transformational leadership and teachers' collective efficacy

The study was designed to test the relationship of principals' transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership with teachers' collective efficacy. Bandura's theory of efficacy applied to the group and Bass's transformational leadership theory were used as the theoretical framework. Participants included 487 French Canadian teachers from 40 public high schools. As expected, there were positive and significant correlations between principals' transformational and transactional leadership and teachers' collective efficacy. Also, there was a negative and significant correlation between laissez-faire leadership and teachers' collective efficacy. Moreover, regression analysis showed transformational leadership significantly enhanced the predictive capabilities of transactional leadership on teachers' collective efficacy. These results confirm the importance of leadership to predict collective efficacy and, by doing so, strengthen Bass's theory of leadership.     

Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity

This study provided a comprehensive examination of the full range of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Results (based on 626 correlations from 87 sources) revealed an overall validity of .44 for transformational leadership, and this validity generalized over longitudinal and multisource designs. Contingent reward (.39) and laissez-faire (-.37) leadership had the next highest overall relations; management by exception (active and passive) was inconsistently related to the criteria. Surprisingly, there were several criteria for which contingent reward leadership had stronger relations than did transformational leadership. Furthermore, transformational leadership was strongly correlated with contingent reward (.80) and laissez-faire (-.65) leadership. Transformational and contingent reward leadership generally predicted criteria controlling for the other leadership dimensions, although transformational leadership failed to predict leader job performance.     

Development and Validation of a Situational Judgment Test of Employee Integrity

Based on Becker's theory (1998) and pilot work (2000) , I developed a situational judgment test of employee integrity. In this study, I examine whether scores on this test predict integrity‐relevant outcomes. The analysis of data from fast service employees, engineers, and production workers revealed that employees' integrity scores were correlated with managerial ratings of career potential, leadership activities, and job performance. Integrity was not related to the quality of interpersonal relationships.     

PERSONALITY CHANGE IN WOMEN PHYSICIANS FROM MEDICAL STUDENT YEARS TO MID-40S

Scales from the California Psychological Inventory's (CPI; Gough, 1987) Externality and Control clusters, in conjunction with a case study, were used to investigate personality change in a sample of women physicians who entered a Pacific Northwest medical school in 1964–1967. A core of 40 women was retested in their early 30s and mid-40s. From mid-20s to early 30s, the physicians'decreased scores on CPI's Sociability and Empathy scales indicated a greater internality. Decreases on the Responsibility and Good Impression scales indicated greater tendencies to question duties and obligations. An increase on the Achievement-via-Conformance scale indicated greater ability to achieve in structured situations. From early 30s to mid-40s, a further shift toward internality was evidenced by decreased scores on Social Presence and Self-Acceptance. Gains in leadership potential and increases on the Responsibility, Self-Control, Good Impression, and Achievement-via-Conformance scales were also noted.     

Personality and the Perception of Transformational Leadership: The Impact of Extraversion,Neuroticism, Personal Need for Structure,and Occupational Self‐Efficacy1

This experimental study examined the influence of followers' personal characteristics on their perception of leadership. Participants were 175 students who self‐rated several personality scales (extraversion, neuroticism, personal need for structure, and occupational self‐efficacy) at Time 1. Two weeks later, participants were divided into two groups and were presented a vignette about a transformational or a nontransformational leader. Subsequently, respondents were asked to rate the described leader's behavior on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Results revealed that followers high in extraversion tended to perceive more transformational leadership, and showed a more positive evaluation of transformational leadership than did followers with low extraversion. Moreover, perceived transformational leadership predicted the acceptance of a leader, but followers' personality traits did not moderate the relationship between perceived transformational leadership and acceptance.     

Constructive Thinking and Firm Disagreement Versus Neuroticism and Mild Agreement: Asymmetric Correlations of Content and Response Measures

All correlations among the principal content and response option measures of Costa and McCrae's (1985) NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) and Epstein and Meier's (1989) Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) were surveyed in data from 303 university students. A bipolar cluster of adjustment-related scales, anchored by CTI Constructive Thinking versus NEO-PI Neuroticism (r = -.74), undergirded the 12 content scales' intercorrelations. Assenting and dissenting responses correlated positively across inventories and within firm, moderate, and neutral categories but correlated negatively across those categories. The content scales had notably asymmetric but consistently coherent associations with response options, strongest but opposite with firm dissent and mild assent and clearly weaker with firm assent, mild dissent, and noncommittal options. Findings indicate that response styles have psychological meanings that merit increased attention.