The influence of neuroticism on spatial presence and enjoyment in films

The purpose of the present study was to clarify the influence of neuroticism on the sensation of spatial presence and enjoyment in films. We presented participants (N = 64) a fearful, sad, and funny movie sequence. Across all media, individuals scoring high on neuroticism experienced more presence than those scoring low. In contrast, no main effect was found on enjoyment. In terms of enjoyment, however, neuroticism interacted with the valence of the sequences: in the two conditions with negative valence (fearful and sad sequence), participants scoring high on neuroticism reported less enjoyment than those scoring low on neuroticism. Opposite results were observed in the funny sequence: participants scoring high on neuroticism enjoyed the funny sequence more than those scoring low on neuroticism. Thus, neuroticism increased presence within all conditions, whereas individuals scoring high on neuroticism only experienced increased enjoyment in positive media contents.     

Self-esteem uncertainty and depression vulnerability

Previous research has typically failed to show a difference between the self-esteem ratings of persons who are at-risk for depression and those who are not. Despite these null findings, it is possible that problems with self-esteem do precede depression but are masked by thought suppression. The present research investigated the possibility that at-risk individuals' relatively positive self-appraisals belie uncertainty about the self that is related to high levels of thought suppression and reassurance seeking. To test this idea, participants completed Rosenberg's (1965) Self-Esteem Scale and immediately reported certainty of their responses. Participants then completed measures of excessive-reassurance seeking and chronic thought suppression. Participants also reported past and present experiences with depression. The results indicated that at-risk individuals did not differ from never-depressed individuals in their reported levels of trait self-esteem. However, at-risk individuals were more uncertain about their beliefs than were never-depressed individuals. Moreover, this uncertainty was associated with high levels of thought suppression and excessive reassurance seeking.     

On the categorization of admired and disliked exemplars of admired and disliked racial groups

The present work examined the influence of affective fit in the racial categorization process. Study 1 tested whether famous exemplars of stigmatized and nonstigmatized racial groups are categorized by race at differential rates, depending on whether they are admired or disliked. Using an inverted-face paradigm, Study 2 examined whether racial categorization accuracy differs for admired and disliked exemplars of these groups. Study 3 examined the influence of collective self-esteem on Whites' tendency to differentially categorize admired and disliked Black and White exemplars. Last, Study 4 replicated the pattern of results found in the previous studies for White participants, making use of unknown exemplars about whom participants learned either positive or negative information prior to categorizing them. Taken together, the results suggested that phenotypically irrelevant affective information regarding exemplars and their social group memberships influences the racial categorization process. Implications for prejudice and stereotyping are discussed.     

Self-Relevance as a Moderator of Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification

We examined the influence of self-esteem on reactions to favorable or unfavorable feedback. We also varied the relevance of this information for participants' self-image—the information was either low or high in self-relevance. When asked how important it was to personally perform well, low self-esteem persons were more likely to engage in self-enhancement in the low than in the high self-relevant context. This finding supports predictions derived from Swann and Schroeder's (1995) analysis. Furthermore, low self-esteem participants engaged in self-enhancement strategies to a greater extent than high self-esteem participants in the low self-relevant condition, whereas an opposite pattern was obtained in the high self-relevant condition. Our analysis bridges the gap between two opposing schools of thought—one that believes that low self-esteem persons will evidence especially strong self-enhancement tendencies and the other that believes that it is high not low self-esteem persons that will demonstrate especially strong self-enhancement tendencies. We discuss the importance of self-relevance for determining when self-enhancement and self-verification will and will not occur.     

EFFECTS OF UNANTICIPATED SELF-DISCLOSURE ON RECIPIENTS OF VARYING LEVELS OF SELF-ESTEEM: A RESEARCH NOTE

Assuming that another's self-disclosure can be rewarding, it was hypothesized that attraction for one who disclosed a relatively high amount of personal information would be greater than attraction for a low discloser when the disclosure was perceived as being appropriate. Also, it was hypothesized that persons of high self-esteem may be more attracted to a high discloser than persons of moderate or low self-esteem. An experiment examined the effects of a confederate's self-disclosure (high or low degree of personal content) on a recipient. Greater attraction was demonstrated toward the confederate in the low disclosure condition, and her behavior was perceived to be more appropriate in this condition. Persons who participated in each of the experimental conditions were divided into three self-esteem categories. Those with intermediate levels of self-esteem were found to be the most receptive to a disclosing other, followed by subjects of low, and finally high self-esteem.     

The effects of perceptual load in central and peripheral regions of the visual field

The perceptual load model claims that attentional selectively depends on perceptual load. Selectivity is high with high load, but low with low load. Previous studies only manipulated load levels at task-relevant regions. In this study, perceptual load was orthogonally manipulated in both relevant (central) and nonrelevant (peripheral) regions, by varying the similarity between the target and nontarget letters and the nontarget letters' heterogeneity. The participants had to identify a target-letter appearing in a central circle of letters. A distractor-letter, appearing in a peripheral circle, was compatible, neutral, or incompatible with the target. As expected, increasing peripheral load deteriorated performance, but only with low levels of central load. The pattern of distractor interference did not follow the model's predictions because distractor interference under high load levels was occasionally found. The expected pattern of results emerged only when the spatial uncertainty regarding the distractor position was low, implying that spatial uncertainty plays an important role in attentional selectivity.     

自尊对情绪面孔注意偏向的影响

研究表明低自尊个体对负性信息表现出高度的警觉和关注,而高自尊个体相对来说注意积极地方面,但并未表现明显偏向。为了精确记录注意选择神经加工时间进程,进一步从电生理学角度对低自尊个体的负性注意偏向进行探讨,本研究运用事件相关电位（ERP）技术对不同自尊个体在点-探测任务过程中的注意偏向进行研究。实验一以129名在校大学生作为被试,以大学生面孔情绪图片（高兴、悲伤和中性）作为实验材料,结果发现,高低自尊个体之间没有出现注意偏向的差异。实验二以实验一筛选出的30名高低自尊个体作为被试,选择了更具负性情绪唤醒的愤怒图片作为实验材料（高兴、愤怒和中性）,行为数据结果发现,两组被试都没有出现注意偏向,相反,无论是在高兴面孔条件下还是在愤怒面孔条件下,低自尊个体的反应时都快于高自尊个体;电生理学数据结果发现,在低自尊个体中,在两种情绪面孔条件下,有效线索的P1峰值显著高于无效线索,而无效线索的N2pc峰值显著高于有效线索。电生理学数据表明,无论是负性的还是正性的情绪性的信息都能引起低自尊个体的更多注意,表明低自尊个体更容易受到情绪性信息的影响。     

Women’s Precollege Sports Participation, Enjoyment of Sports, and Self-esteem

This study tested a model that specifies that the psychosocial impact of women’s precollege sports participation depends on the quality of their sports experience, that is, on participants’ enjoyment of sports and the benefits derived from athletic pursuits. A sample of 245 college women (mean age?=?19.9 years) provided retrospective reports of their precollege sports involvement as well as assessments of their enjoyment of sports, perceived physical competence, body image, gender role orientation, and self-esteem. Consistent with past research, women students’ precollege sport participation was a modest predictor of their self-esteem in bivariate analyses. Follow-up analyses revealed that enjoyment of sports mediated the sports participation/self-esteem relationship and implied that female participants who find sports less enjoyable may be at risk of experiencing declining self-esteem. However, enjoyment of sports explained little unique variance in global self-esteem after we controlled for the influence of other sports-related benefits (e.g., improved physical competence). Implications for those who hope to help more girls reap psychosocial benefits from sporting activities are discussed.     

Moral Judgment as a Predictor of Enjoyment of Crime Drama

The goal of the study is to better understand the relationship between factors involved in moral judgment of entertainment and the enjoyment of crime drama. After completing numerous social-justice measures, the 139 participants viewed one of two clips from a crime-punishment movie and then responded to survey items regarding their enjoyment of the clip. The clips differed in the type of crime presented. It was predicted that the different crimes would elicit different levels of moral judgment about the punishments for those crimes, which would then impact enjoyment. Although the levels of enjoyment reported for the two clips were similar, enjoyment was predicted by different factors of moral judgment in each condition, as predicted. The results lend further support to disposition theory and the integrated model of crime-drama enjoyment, as well as identify factors of moral reasoning that consistently serve as predictors of crime-drama enjoyment.     

The Relationship Between Friendship Quality and Self-Esteem in Adolescent Girls and Boys

Much has been written about the low self-esteem of adolescent girls relative to adolescent boys, but little research has explored the role that friendship quality may play in affecting self-esteem. Ninety-seven female and 67 male 11th and 12th graders completed measures of self-esteem and of friendship quality with both same- and cross-gender best friends. Ninety-five percent of the participants were White, and ranged across the socioeconomic spectrum with the majority coming from middle-class families. We found that girls' self-esteem was significantly lower than boys' self-esteem and that girls rated their relationships as stronger, more interpersonally rewarding, and more stressful than boys did. Boys reported that their friendship with their best female friend was more interpersonally rewarding than their friendship with their best male friend, whereas girls rated the quality of their same- and cross-gender friends similarly. As expected, girls' self-esteem was positively correlated with the friendship quality of their cross-gender best friend. However, their self-esteem was not correlated with the quality of their same-gender friendship. Boys' self-esteem did not correlate with the quality of their same- or cross-gender best friendship. Results may help us understand the relatively low self-esteem experienced by adolescent girls.     

Self-esteem,need gratification,and work satisfaction: A test of competing explanations from consistency theory and self-enhancement theory

A sample of 112 administrators provided self-report data used to test two hypotheses derived from Korman's consistency model of work behavior. As predicted, those with high self-esteem experienced significantly greater need gratification than did those with low self-esteem, and self-esteem also significantly positively moderated the relationship between n gratification and work satisfaction. Need gratification was assessed for only those needs that were most salient for each person, thus eliminating a rival interpretation of the findings derived from the self-enhancement model of self-esteem. The moderating effect of self-esteem on the n gratification-work satisfaction relationship was limited to those experiencing low levels of n gratification, indicating a possible “boundary condition” of consistency theory. A problem with the use of moderator variables in behavioral science was also discussed.     

The Effect of Suspense on Enjoyment Following a Desirable Outcome: The Mediating Role of Relief

Although endemic to many forms of media entertainment, suspense represents a paradox for enjoyment because it is experienced as an aversive state. Three studies are presented across two media contexts demonstrating how outcomes to suspenseful episodes affect viewers' relief. Study 1 shows that relief is elicited only when a film's outcome is unambiguously favorable and under such conditions is positively related to enjoyment. No such relationship was found given an ambiguous outcome. Study 1 provides evidence that relief is distinct from other affective responses (i.e., positive and negative affect, surprise) that may be present following suspense. Studies 2 and 3 use competitive contests as a context and provide evidence that relief mediates the effect of suspense on enjoyment. Study 2 shows that the previously positive effects of suspense and expectation disconfirmation on enjoyment are obviated in the presence of relief. Study 3 varies suspense in real time across 14 simulated races. Also manipulated are affective dispositions toward the racers and race outcome. The results reveal that relief mediates the effect of suspense on enjoyment, but only when the outcome favors a preferred competitor. The research enhances our understanding of the intertwining of cognition and affect in the enjoyment of suspense.     

In the Wake of the Great Recession: Economic Uncertainty,Communication, and Biological Stress Responses in Families

The impact of spouses' communication about economic uncertainty on biological stress responses was examined. The sample included 82 Latino and Caucasian couples and one of their adolescents. Wives with low economic uncertainty experienced the greatest cortisol increase to a stressful discussion with their spouse, while wives with high economic uncertainty experienced a blunted cortisol response. Husbands with high economic uncertainty exhibited a low, unresponsive cortisol pattern. Wives who experienced elevated cortisol used more corumination and had low community support. The amount parents talked about their financial worries to their adolescent was not associated with the adolescent's mental health or biosocial markers, but the parents' economic uncertainty and corumination with each other were negatively associated with their own mental health.     

Interpersonal evaluations following threats to self: role of self-esteem

In 2 studies, the authors used dyadic interactions to assess the influence of ego threat on likability as a function of self-esteem. In both studies, 2 naive participants engaged in a structured conversation; in half of the dyads, 1 participant received an ego threat prior to the interaction. In the 1st study, threatened high self-esteem participants were rated as less likable than were threatened low self-esteem participants. The 2nd study confirmed that ego threats are associated with decreased liking for those with high self-esteem and with increased liking for those with low self-esteem. A mediational analysis demonstrated that decreased liking among high self-esteem participants was due to being perceived as antagonistic. Study 2 also indicated that the findings could not be explained by trait levels of narcissism. These patterns are interpreted in terms of differential sensitivity to potential interpersonal rejection.     

不同自尊者对自我相关信息的记忆偏好

研究主要采用4(自尊类型)×2(词汇效价)混合设计,探讨了178名不同自尊水平或不同自尊类型大学生对自我相关信息的记忆偏好。结果发现:(1)高外显自尊者比低自尊者有更积极的记忆偏好,消极记忆偏好差异不显著;高内隐自尊者则比低自尊者有更弱的积极回忆偏好及更弱的消极回忆偏好。(2)就作为组内差异存在的记忆偏好而言,所有被试均有积极偏好;就作为组间差异存在的记忆偏好而言,脆弱的高自尊者有更强的积极偏好,但低自尊者也没有表现出明显的消极偏好。结果提示不同自尊者对自我相关信息有不同记忆偏好。     

自尊与记忆偏向的关系

采用2（外显自尊：高、低）×2（内隐自尊：高、低）×2（编码深度：浅、深）×3（词汇效价：积极、中性、消极）混合设计,考察了89名不同自尊类型的大学生在不同编码深度下对不同效价形容词的再认记忆。结果发现：（1）在浅水平编码组中,低内隐自尊被试比高内隐自尊被试有更强的积极记忆偏向,而高低不同水平的外显自尊者对于词语记忆偏向没有显著差异;（2）在深程度编码组中不同自尊水平影响被试对积极词的无意识提取;（3）所有被试均有积极记忆偏向。     

Drinking to regulate negative romantic relationship interactions: The moderating role of self-esteem

A 30-day diary study examined the relations among trait self-esteem, negative romantic relationship interactions, and alcohol consumption. Multilevel analyses revealed that people with low trait self-esteem (compared with people with high trait self-esteem) drank more on days when they experienced more negative relationship interactions with their romantic partners. In addition, daily increases in state self-esteem buffered people with low trait self-esteem from the desire to drink in response to negative romantic relationship interactions. In contrast, participants with high and low self-esteem both decreased their drinking in response to negative non-romantic relationship events, but people with low self-esteem decreased their drinking less. These findings suggest that people with low trait self-esteem may drink as a way to regulate unfulfilled needs for acceptance.     

Opposing effects of personal and collective self-esteem on interpersonal and intergroup comparisons

The relationship between self-esteem deriving from both personal and social identity and comparisons at both interpersonal and intergroup level was examined. Participants took part in individual and group brainstorming tasks which they later had the opportunity to evaluate. In the case of the individual task, participants' own solutions were judged in conjunction with solutions provided by a member of their ingroup and a member of the outgroup. For the group task, the ingroup solution was compared with an outgroup solution. Both personal and collective self-esteem were found to influence these ratings, but in different ways. In terms of intergroup comparisons, participants with high personal self-esteem (PSE) showed greatest ingroup bias. In contrast, this same effect was associated with low public collective-self esteem (CSE), that is, people who felt that their group was viewed negatively differentiated most strongly. Furthermore, this opposition of the effects of PSE and CSE also applied to the interpersonal comparisons. Participants with high PSE self-enhanced relative to participants with low PSE, while the reverse pertained for CSE scores. Participants with low private CSE rated both their own and the ingroup member's solution more positively than the outgroup solution. An analysis is presented which explains these effects in terms of threat experienced as a result of incongruency between comparative context and optimal identity enhancement strategies. Copyright © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Compensatory nonconformity: Self-uncertainty and low implicit self-esteem increase adoption and expression of minority opinions

The present studies tested whether people, particularly those who are most vulnerable to self-threats as indicated by low implicit self-esteem, adopt and express minority opinions to compensate for self-uncertainty. In Studies 1 through 3, low implicit self-esteem participants who were made to feel uncertain about themselves as individuals (versus uncertain about a self-irrelevant issue in Study 1, certain about themselves in Study 2, or uncertain about their group memberships in Study 3) expressed more disagreement with others' opinions. Additionally, Study 3 demonstrated that this effect is specific to minority opinions and does not emerge on majority opinions. In Study 4, the relation between self-uncertainty and disagreement with others' opinions was strongest among participants with both low implicit and high explicit self-esteem, who respond to self-threats in particularly defensive ways.