Measuring volunteers for exciting psychology experiments with the Sensation-Seeking Scale

The sensation-seeking motive was first operationalized by Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, and Zoob (1964) with the development of the Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS). One area of applied research in which the SSS has been used is the study of volunteering. In this area, evidence suggests that high-sensation seekers volunteer for exciting activities more often than low-sensation seekers, but not for unexciting activities. However, a problem with this research is that no empirical data has been obtained related to the subject's belief of the exciting nature of the activities. In this study, college students were given the most recent form of the SSS and were asked to volunteer for either or both of two studies. SSS scores were higher, p less than .05, for volunteers than for nonvolunteers for a study that subjects rated as exciting, but did not differ for a study that subjects rated as unexciting. This demonstrates that volunteers for exciting studies, but not volunteers for unexciting studies, tend to be higher sensation seekers than nonvolunteers.     

Arousal Seeking as a Motivation for Volunteering: MMPI Scores and Central-Nervous-System-Stimulant Use as Suggestive of a Trait

Subjects who indicated that they would volunteer for a psychological experiment reported significantly moTe coffee and caffeine-pill usage than nonvolunteers. Male volunteers more frequently reported cigarette smoking.

In this study, males and females each scored significantly higher on the following MMPI scales: paranoia, schizophrenia, hypomania, cigarette smoking, control and social-participation scales.

Male volunteers scored significantly higher on the masculinity-femininity and dominance scales, while the male nonvolunteers scored higher on the quantitative orientation scale and the social introversion scale.

Female volunteers scored significantly higher on the psychopathic deviate, psychasthenia, F, and manifest-hostility scales; and significantly lower on the lie, defensiveness, and responsibility scales.

The results suggest that a personality trait of arousal seeking could explain some of the MMPI scale score differences as well as the central-nervous-system-stimulant usage.

The results were concordant with most earlier studies in finding differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers on one or more psychological variables.     

College Students and Community Service: Who,With Whom,and Why?

The community service volunteer vs. nonvolunteer status of 124 college students was examined in relation to motivation, gender, extraversion-introversion, and social anxiety. Volunteers and female students were hypothesized to have higher levels of motivation to participate than were nonvolunteers and males, and to have higher levels of interest in volunteering. The data for volunteer status and gender were significant only with respect to interest in volunteering, with volunteers and females significantly more interested in volunteering than were nonvolunteers and males. Gender differences were also found for volunteering style preference and participation within particular volunteer groups. Volunteers were also hypothesized to have lower levels of extraversion and higher levels of social anxiety than nonvolunteers because socially anxious introverts were thought to seek the anxiety-reducing structure of a volunteer activity. This hypothesis was not supported.     

Antisocial and prosocial behavior among contemporary Robin Hoods

Sensation-seeking and related personality traits have been linked to both dedliquency and helping behavior. This suggests that certain stimulus-need characteristics are capable of producing both antisocial and prosocial behavior in the same individual. Forty-nine eigth-grade students in a midwest parochial school completed the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) and a Deliquency Self-report Form. They were placed into either a low- or a high-stimulus condition, tested for a anxiety and sensation-seeking states and a given request to volunteer.As predicted, Deliquency scores were significantly related to the incidencee of volunteering. Volunteers and delinquents, especially drug users, had significantly higher SSS scores than nonvolunteers and nondelinquents. The high-stimulus condition also had a significantly higher proportion of volunteers. Other relationships were found between N and Anxiety, and E and SSS scores,. Results are discussed in terms of interaction of personality characteristics with stimulus conditions, the ‘Robin Hood Syndrome’ and treatment implications.     

Beyond keeping active: concomitants of being a volunteer in old-old age

This study examines concomitants of volunteering in the context of other lifestyle activities. Investigating formal volunteering in old-old age, the authors analyzed data of 148 volunteers versus 1,195 nonvolunteers in a national sample of the Israeli Jewish population aged 75-94. As hypothesized, being a volunteer related (whether as a cause or effect) to more positive functioning on psychosocial markers and prospectively resulted in reduced mortality risk even when other activity outlets (physical activity, everyday activities, having a hobby) were controlled. These findings suggest that the benefits of volunteering in late life are not reducible to those of other activities.     

Are Volunteers More Committed Than Nonvolunteers?

Volunteers and nonvolunteers have generally been compared on demographic and personality data. Little research is available on attitudinal differences between these groups. As part of a large study on commitment to the police department, 215 officers were asked to participate in a two-stage study. The first stage asked subjects to complete a large questionnaire that included a moral commitment scale and a calculative commitment scale. In order to analyze future behavior, participants were asked to supply their ID number. Results showed that volunteers were more committed than nonvolunteers, particularly on an identification with the organization factor. Some implications of the findings, as well as supportive data, are discussed.     

Personality characteristics of research volunteers

We evaluated Big Five personality factor differences between research volunteers and nonvolunteers. In the first study, 158 military officers were asked to participate in a mail survey. The personality scores of the officers were available from an archival data set. In our second study, adult siblings from large families were invited to participate in extensive clinical epidemiological evaluations. The personality scores of volunteers (N = 55) and nonvolunteers from the same families (N = 29) were estimated from sibling ratings made by those who participated in the study. In both studies, respondents, compared to nonrespondents, were found to be significantly lower in Neuroticism and higher in Conscientiousness. The second study further indicated respondents as being higher in Extraversion and Agreeableness. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fear Versus Humor: The Impact of Sensation Seeking on Physiological,Cognitive, and Emotional Responses to Antialcohol Abuse Messages

This study investigates the differences in physiological, cognitive, and emotional responses to existing emotional antialcohol abuse advertisements (fear vs. humor appeal) between high and low sensation seekers. A 2 (Message Type) × 2 (Sensation-Seeking Tendency) × 4 (Message Repetition) mixed-model experiment with repeated measures was conducted with 71 college students. The results, based on self-reports, indicated that fear messages generated more interest and perceived danger of excessive drinking regardless of sensation-seeking tendency, whereas humorous messages were rated as more likeable than fear messages, and the difference was bigger among low sensation seekers than among high sensation seekers. One interesting finding was that for both fear and humor appeals, low sensation seekers showed greater emotional responses (greater corrugators activities and greater zygomatic activities) than high sensation seekers overall. The implications of the current study as well as suggestions for future study were discussed.     

Risk taking as motivation for volunteering for a hazardous experiment

Army male enlisted personnel were tested in two experiments to assess the psychological correlates of volunteering for a hazardous combat simulation, (Experiment 1) and a riskless, psychological experiment (Experiment 2). Subjects were given a biographical and personal habit questionnaire, the IPAT Anxiety Scale, Rotter's Locus of Control Scale, and Torrance and Ziller's life experience inventory. Results from Experiment 1 indicated that volunteers were significantly less anxious, and more willing to take risks than were nonvolunteers. Noncommissioned officers, smokers, laterborn children, and children of lower socioeconomic class parents were significantly overrepresented among the volunteers for this hazardous experiment. In Experiment 2, which solicited volunteers for a routine, nonhazardous experiment, the only variable to discriminate the volunteers from the nonvolunteers was mothers' education level. Results are in agreement with findings, using college students, that volunteer samples differ significantly from nonvolunteer samples, and that the characteristics that discriminate these two groups vary as a function of situational factors.     

Fear versus humor: the impact of sensation seeking on physiological, cognitive, and emotional responses to antialcohol abuse messages

This study investigates the differences in physiological, cognitive, and emotional responses to existing emotional antialcohol abuse advertisements (fear vs. humor appeal) between high and low sensation seekers. A 2 (Message Type) x 2 (Sensation-Seeking Tendency) x 4 (Message Repetition) mixed-model experiment with repeated measures was conducted with 71 college students. The results, based on self-reports, indicated that fear messages generated more interest and perceived danger of excessive drinking regardless of sensation-seeking tendency, whereas humorous messages were rated as more likeable than fear messages, and the difference was bigger among low sensation seekers than among high sensation seekers. One interesting finding was that for both fear and humor appeals, low sensation seekers showed greater emotional responses (greater corrugators activities and greater zygomatic activities) than high sensation seekers overall. The implications of the current study as well as suggestions for future study were discussed.     

Motivation as Mediator Between National Identity and Intention to Volunteer

Although there is a large volume of research on the relationship between social identity and volunteerism, little attention was given to national identity in volunteerism research. This study examined the role of national identity in motivating people to volunteer in the Chinese culture and its role in differentiating those who showed no interest in voluntary work (i.e. non‐volunteers) from those who wanted to volunteer but did not (i.e. potential volunteers). Two hundred ninety‐nine participants (age, M = 34.14 years) filled out a questionnaire on their demographics, experience of volunteering, intention to volunteer, volunteer motivations, and national identity. Results showed that a stronger national identity was associated with greater volunteer motivations. Mediation analyses further supported the positive indirect effect of national identity on intention to volunteer through strengthening volunteer motivations. Marital status was the only significant factor that differentiated current volunteers from potential volunteers. We concluded that citizens’ volunteer motivation increases with national identity, yet concrete measures to bring potential volunteers to actual volunteering need to be further explored. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Do worksite stress management programs attract the employees who need them and are they effective?

Employees who planned to attend a worksite stress management program (volunteers), those who planned not to attend (nonvolunteers), and those who had participated in worksite stress management training were assessed on the variables of work stressors, perceived stress, and organizational spontaneity (extrarole) behavior. Twelve hundred hospital employees were randomly selected from seven VA hospitals that had been offering a stress management program for at least 5 years. Participants received questionnaire packets in the mail and 461 (38%) of the employees responded. The results showed that volunteers reported significantly more perceived stress than the nonvolunteers. However, volunteers did not report greater frequency or intensity of work stressors. Also, respondents who had participated in past stress training reported less perceived stress than volunteers and significantly more organizational spontaneity behavior than respondents who had not participated in past stress training. These findings suggest that employees who plan to attend stress training have the greatest need and that the stress intervention reduces perceived stress levels and, possibly, affects work behavior.     

Sensation seeking and financial risk taking in everyday money matters

The present study investigated the degree to which the previously established relationship between sensation seeking and risk taking associated with gambling could be extended to everyday financial matters (e.g., personal banking activities). The subjects, classified into high and low sensation seekers, were asked to make a series of everyday financial decisions that varied in their degrees of risk. Overall, the results indicate high sensation seekers displayed greater risk-taking tendencies in everyday financial matters than low sensation seekers. This difference in everyday financial risk taking between high and low sensation seekers was also found within each gender group. Implications and suggestions for future research involving sensation seeking in other personal and professional financial decision-making areas are also presented.     

Volunteer Experience May Not Bridge Gaps in Employment

This study investigated whether volunteer experience compensates for a gap in employment that occurs either early or late in one's career. Recruiters (n = 82) evaluated resumes of fictitious applicants with either early or late employment gaps, plus one of three types of volunteer experience: career‐related, career‐unrelated, and none. For applicants with an employment gap, resumes with volunteer experience – regardless of its career‐relatedness – were not rated significantly higher than resumes without volunteer experience. Although not statistically significant, resumes with late employment gaps were rated highest when they had career‐related volunteer experience and lowest when they had no volunteer experience. In line with human capital theory, applicants late in their career were rated higher than applicants early in their career.     

Sociomoral reflection and prosocial and antisocial behavior: two Italian studies

Two Italian studies on the development of moral judgment based on the 1992 Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form of Gibbs, Basinger, and Fuller were performed. In Study 1, 49 male and female adolescent volunteers involved in prosocial activities and a control group of 60 nonvolunteers completed the form. In Study 2, 60 male drug abusers in a drug-rehabilitation community were compared with a matched group of 60 nondrug abusers. Analysis showed that involvement in prosocial activities was associated with higher stages of moral judgment and Type B responses, while drug abuse was associated with lower stages of moral judgment and more Type A responses. The moral type scores were less closely associated with behavioral outcomes than the moral stage scores, perhaps reflecting the interplay between universal sociocognitive processes and specific real-life situations.     

Volunteer recruitment: the role of organizational support and anticipated respect in non-volunteers' attraction to charitable volunteer organizations

In 3 experiments the authors examined how specific characteristics of charitable volunteer organizations contribute to the recruitment of new volunteers. In line with predictions, Study 1 revealed that providing non-volunteers with information about organizational support induced anticipated feelings of respect, which subsequently enhanced their attraction to the volunteer organization. However, information about the current success of the volunteer organization did not affect anticipated pride (as among those who seek paid employment) and in fact caused potential volunteers to perceive the organization as being in less need for additional volunteers. Study 2 further showed that information about support from the volunteer organization is a more relevant source of anticipated respect and organizational attraction than support from co-volunteers. Study 3 finally showed that information about task and emotional support for volunteers contributes to anticipated respect and organizational attractiveness and that this increases the actual willingness of non-volunteers to participate in the volunteer organization. Interventions aimed at attracting volunteers and avenues for further research are discussed.     

Increasing volunteering at a residential facility: An experimental evaluation of a volunteer assistance program

A helpful component for comprehensive residential services for developmentally disabled persons is volunteer assistance. This investigation involved the evaluation of a program developed to increase the amount of volunteer assistance provided to a public residential facility. The program consisted of three types of related procedures: systematic volunteer recruitment steps, specific volunteer activities at the facility, and consequence/recognition for the volunteer assistance. The program was successively implemented to involve students as volunteers from two local universities, and resulted in an increase in new students volunteering from both universities. Additionally, the frequency with which the students volunteered at the residential facility increased substantially from both universities relative to control periods during which the volunteer program was not in effect. Results are discussed in terms of the benefits of volunteers and continued research to increase involvement of other prospective groups of volunteers.     

A Study of Current, Former, and New Elderly Volunteers: A Comparison of Developmental and Trait Models of Personality

This study examined relationships among personality traits, ego development, and volunteering among retired seniors who were current, former, and new volunteers. Volunteer history, but not extensiveness of volunteer experience, was associated with higher ego development. Current volunteers had higher levels of ego development than former and new volunteers, and former volunteers had higher levels than new volunteers. Openness to experience and ego development were positively associated. Results of multiple-regression analyses indicated that openness and volunteering history and extensiveness positively predicted ego development. This study supported the hypothesis that ego development is related to volunteering and suggests that participation in volunteer work promotes ego development.     

A survey of psychologists employed in business and industry

Responses to a questionnaire from 78 members of the Metropolitan New York Association for Applied Psychology provided the following results. A majority of respondents found their first jobs as applied psychologists through informal networking techniques such as personal recommendations or self-starter methods such as sending out resumes. Over 75% of the respondents rated their graduate institutions as good or excellent. However, an increase in the applied focus of these programs was strongly urged, and opinions about graduate faculties were mixed. Obtaining applied work experience or relevant internships was the most often mentioned advice for seekers of similar positions.Appreciation is expressed to Harold Takooshian of Fordham University who first aroused our interests in this topic as an area for research and to Bruce Biskin of AICPA, Dennis Hawver and Tony Zinsser of the Hawver Group, Ted Grant and Michael Secunda of Manufacturers Hanover, and Tom Novak of Young & Rubicam for serving as pre-test subjects for the questionnaire of this study.     

Positive emotional expectations predict volunteer outcomes for new volunteers

Emotional expectations are likely to influence behavioral outcomes, even when entering novel situations. In the present study, it was proposed that positive emotional expectations would influence volunteer outcomes for new volunteers. New and experienced volunteers were recruited for a two-part longitudinal study. Study hypotheses were confirmed. The mere anticipation of positive emotions was able to predict volunteer outcomes for new volunteers. Emotional expectations (i.e., sympathy, satisfaction) were positively associated with intentions to continue volunteering, identification with the volunteer role, and predicted volunteer persistence 6 months later for new volunteers. For experienced volunteers, emotional expectations were only significantly and positively associated with volunteer role identity. Moreover, the intent to persist as a volunteer was found to have a stronger positive association with actual persistence for experienced volunteers than for new volunteers.