一个新的中医研究范式:从非线性动力学的角度解读中医

西方对中医的研究多是利用随机控制试验来检验其疗效。通过讨论,认为这类研究有其局限性。同时探讨一种新的研究范式,即非线性动力学理论。认为这一理论能够提供理论依据来设计适合中医特征的临床试验,并可望得出为西方医学界所接受的研究结果。     

The psychological representation of speech sounds

If one listens to a meaningless syllable that is repeated over and over, he will hear it undergo a variety of changes. These changes are extremely systematic in character and can be described phonetically in terms of reorganizations of the phones constituting the syllable and changes in a restricted set of distinctive features. When a new syllable is presented to a subject after he has listened to a particular syllable that was repeated, he will misreport the new (test) syllable. His misperception of the test syllable is related to the changes occurring in the representation of the original repeated syllable just prior to the presentation of the test syllable.     

Cognitive test batteries in animal cognition research: evaluating the past,present and future of comparative psychometrics

For the past two decades, behavioural ecologists have documented consistent individual differences in behavioural traits within species and found evidence for animal “personality”. It is only relatively recently, however, that increasing numbers of researchers have begun to investigate individual differences in cognitive ability within species. It has been suggested that cognitive test batteries may provide an ideal tool for this growing research endeavour. In fact, cognitive test batteries have now been used to examine the causes, consequences and underlying structure of cognitive performance within and between many species. In this review, we document the existing attempts to develop cognitive test batteries for non-human animals and review the claims that these studies have made in terms of the structure and evolution of cognition. We argue that our current test battery methods could be improved on multiple fronts, from the design of tasks, to the domains targeted and the species tested. Refining and optimising test battery design will provide many benefits. In future, we envisage that well-designed cognitive test batteries may provide answers to a range of exciting questions, including giving us greater insight into the evolution and structure of cognition.     

The Power to Detect and Predict Individual Differences in Intra-Individual Variability Using the Mixed-Effects Location-Scale Model

Our goal is to provide empirical scientists with practical tools and advice with which to test hypotheses related to individual differences in intra-individual variability using the mixed-effects location-scale model. To that end, we evaluate Type I error rates and power to detect and predict individual differences in intra-individual variability using this model and provide empirically-based guidelines for building scale models that include random and/or systematically-varying fixed effects. We also provide two power simulation programs that allow researchers to conduct a priori empirical power analyses. Our results aligned with statistical power theory, in that, greater power was observed for designs with more individuals, more repeated occasions, greater proportions of variance available to be explained, and larger effect sizes. In addition, our results indicated that Type I error rates were acceptable in situations when individual differences in intra-individual variability were not initially detectable as well as when the scale-model individual-level predictor explained all initially detectable individual differences in intra-individual variability. We conclude our paper by providing study design and model building advice for those interested in using the mixed-effects location-scale model in practice.     

Tests of sphericity of normal distributions and the analysis of repeated measures designs

The locally best invariant test statistic for testing sphericity of normal distributions is shown to be a simple function of the Box/Geisser-Greenhouse degrees of freedom correction factor in a repeated measures design. Because of this relationship it provides a more intuitively appealing test of the necessary and sufficient conditions for valid F-tests in repeated measures analysis of variance than the likelihood ratio test. The properties of the two tests are compared and tables of the critical values of the Box/Geisser-Greenhouse correction factor are given.     

Psychosocial and pharmacological treatment of patients following deliberate self-harm: the methodological issues involved in evaluating effectiveness.

Development of effective treatments for patients following deliberate self-harm (self-poisoning or self-injury) is a very important element in suicide prevention. The randomized controlled trial (RCT) is the mainstay of evaluation of treatments. In a systematic review of the literature, the effectiveness of treatments based on RCTs was examined and the quality of the RCTs was assessed. Twenty trials were identified, and where possible, these were grouped on the basis of similarities among the types of treatment. In this paper, we examine the methodological aspects of the trials and consider what may be learned that will assist in the design of future studies in this field. The methodological quality of the trials was reasonable, but most trials included too few participants to detect clinically important differences in rates of repeated self-harm. In planning future trials, the following major issues should be addressed: investigators should perform power calculations to determine the number of subjects necessary to detect clinically important effects, provide information on method of randomization and interventions, use standard measures of outcome, and focus on homogeneous subgroups of patients. Improving the methodology of future studies in this field will be essential if sound evidence is to be obtained which can inform effective service provision for deliberate self-harm patients.     

Does learning a skill with the expectation of teaching it impair the skill’s execution under psychological pressure if the skill is learned with analogy instructions?

ObjectiveHaving learners practice a motor skill with the expectation of teaching it (versus an expectation of being tested on it) has been revealed to enhance skill learning. However, this improvement in skill performance is lost when the skill must be performed under psychological pressure due to ‘choking under pressure.’ The present study will investigate whether this choking effect is caused by an accrual of declarative knowledge during skill practice and could be prevented if a technique (analogy instructions) to minimize the accrual of declarative knowledge during practice is employed.DesignWe will use a 2 (Expectation: teach/test) x 2 (Instruction: analogy/explicit) x 2 (Posttest: high-pressure/low-pressure) mixed-factor design, with repeated measures on the last factor.MethodsA minimum of 148 participants will be quasi-randomly assigned (based on sex) to one of four groups. Participants in the teach/analogy and teach/explicit groups will practice golf putting with the expectation of teaching putting to another participant, and analogy instructions or explicit instructions, respectively. Participants in the test/analogy and test/explicit groups will practice golf putting with the expectation of being tested on their putting, and analogy instructions or explicit instructions, respectively. The next day all participants will complete low- and high-pressure putting posttests, with their putting accuracy serving as the dependent variable.     

可修改答案的认知诊断计算机化自适应测验研究

允许修改答案的认知诊断计算机化自适应测验(Reviewable Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing,RCD-CAT),有利于更准确诊断被试的知识状态,题目口袋法(Item Pocket,IP)为被试提供了缓存作答并修改的机会,改进的题目口袋法(Modified IP,MIP)对IP内修改的题目重新计分。模拟研究比较了IP、MIP、stocking Ⅰ和stocking Ⅱ在RCD-CAT效果,结果发现:stocking设计的效果最优,其中stocking Ⅱ的效果略优于stocking Ⅰ,IP法和MIP法判准率要低于传统CD-CAT,stocking设计在RCD-CAT具有较好的应用前景。     

医学生疼痛共情的认知过程特征：来自ERP的证据

以往研究发现临床医生的疼痛共情显著低于常人,表现为前者感知他人疼痛时会出现早期情绪分享和晚期情绪调节的相对抑制。而处于职前培养期的医学生是否存在相似问题,其疼痛共情又是否会受到重复暴露的影响,目前并不清楚。为此,本研究采用ERP技术比较了医学与非医学专业大学生疼痛共情的认知过程,并通过前后测设计检验了重复暴露对二者疼痛共情的影响。行为结果发现两组被试的主观疼痛判断都出现了疼痛共情效应,但未出现组别差异,也未发现重复暴露的影响。但ERP结果显示,医学生的疼痛共情过程显著区别于非医学生。他们虽表现出早期情绪分享成分N1的抑制效应,但LPP反映的晚期认知加工却显著增强,且上述两阶段加工均未受到重复暴露的显著影响。研究表明：（1）医学学习能够抑制疼痛共情的早期情绪分享,但医学生仍可通过更多晚期认知资源投入来维持其疼痛共情水平。（2）医学生的疼痛共情较少受到重复暴露的影响,呈现情绪适应特点。     

Factors affecting consumers' trust in online product reviews

In this study, we apply the uncertainty reduction theory from communication to delineate the antecedents of consumers' trust in online product reviews. We test the competing effects of information content (argument quality) and social component (perceived background similarity) on consumers' trust in reviews. We also hypothesize that the strength of the effect is moderated by consumers' involvement. To test the hypotheses, we adopted a 2 × 2 × 2 repeated measures experimental design. The results show that both argument quality and perceived similarity contribute to increased trust but in varying degrees. The results provide mixed support to the moderating role of involvement. While argument quality played an important role in the high involvement mode, perceived similarity explained more variance in the low involvement mode. We discuss the implications of these results for both research and practice. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Culture: Copying,Compression, and Conventionality

Through cultural transmission, repeated learning by new individuals transforms cultural information, which tends to become increasingly compressible (Kirby, Cornish, & Smith, 2008 ; Smith, Tamariz, & Kirby, 2013 ). Existing diffusion chain studies include in their design two processes that could be responsible for this tendency: learning (storing patterns in memory) and reproducing (producing the patterns again). This paper manipulates the presence of learning in a simple iterated drawing design experiment. We find that learning seems to be the causal factor behind the increase in compressibility observed in the transmitted information, while reproducing is a source of random heritable innovations. Only a theory invoking these two aspects of cultural learning will be able to explain human culture's fundamental balance between stability and innovation.     

Effects of modeling and videotape feedback with knowledge of results on motor performance

On the basis of social learning theory it can be hypothesized that information acquired through model observation can provide as rich a basis for a cognitive representation as that acquired by means of the usual KR procedure. A source of external information similar to that of model observation is videotape feedback (VTFB). Therefore, it was the purpose of this study to test the potency of these two sources of information with KR. The design was a 4 (groups) × 10 (blocks) factorial ANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor. Both immediate transfer and 48-hr retention effects were assessed. The immediate transfer analysis indicated a significant main effect for group. This effect appeared to be due to the poor performance of the VTFB group. The same effect approached significance after the 48-hr retention. Subsequent variance analysis indicated significant differences between transfer and retention within all conditions except modeling.     

Adult attachment and Mindfulness: Examining directionality,causality, and theoretical implications

We present two studies that together provide preliminary evidence to challenge the view that the relationship between adult attachment and mindfulness is bi-directional (Study 1: repeated measures design and Study 2: a repeated measures study examining the efficacy of attachment security priming and a mindfulness induction). Adult attachment anxiety emerged as a significant predictor of some facets of mindfulness, over time, but the reverse was not true. Priming attachment security increased state mindfulness of mind to a greater degree than a mindfulness induction or control. These findings challenge previous research suggesting that the relationship between adult attachment and mindfulness is bi-directional, suggesting that attachment orientation plays a causal role in the development of mindfulness.     

Minimax d-optimal designs for item response theory models

Various different item response theory (IRT) models can be used in educational and psychological measurement to analyze test data. One of the major drawbacks of these models is that efficient parameter estimation can only be achieved with very large data sets. Therefore, it is often worthwhile to search for designs of the test data that in some way will optimize the parameter estimates. The results from the statistical theory on optimal design can be applied for efficient estimation of the parameters.A major problem in finding an optimal design for IRT models is that the designs are only optimal for a given set of parameters, that is, they are locally optimal. Locally optimal designs can be constructed with a sequential design procedure. In this paper minimax designs are proposed for IRT models to overcome the problem of local optimality. Minimax designs are compared to sequentially constructed designs for the two parameter logistic model and the results show that minimax design can be nearly as efficient as sequentially constructed designs.     

Measuring preschool cognitive growth while it's still happening: The Learning Express

Educators need accurate assessments of preschool cognitive growth to guide curriculum design, evaluation, and timely modification of their instructional programs. But available tests do not provide content breadth or growth sensitivity over brief intervals. This article details evidence for a multiform, multiscale test criterion-referenced to national standards for alphabet knowledge, vocabulary, listening comprehension and mathematics, developed in field trials with 3433 3–5¹/₂-year-old Head Start children. The test enables repeated assessments (20–30 min per time point) over a school year. Each subscale is calibrated to yield scaled scores based on item response theory and Bayesian estimation of ability. Multilevel modeling shows that nearly all score variation is associated with child performance rather than examiner performance and individual growth-curve modeling demonstrates the high sensitivity of scores to child growth, controlled for age, sex, prior schooling, and language and special needs status.     

Stimulus correlates of visual pattern discrimination and the problem of grain

Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics - A recent paper by V. J. Polidora (1966) is criticized on the basis that the experimental design did not provide an adequate test of the usefulness of 15...     

The effects of repeated retesting: III. further experiments and general conclusions

This is the third of a series of papers dealing with the effects of repeated retesting on intelligence test scores. It comprises an account of two further experiments, and a discussion of the four so far performed, since each throws light on the results of the others and it is their joint interpretation which is thought to be of value.

The two earlier experiments consisted in repeated testing of a group of W.E.A. students and a group of mentally defective boys by an intelligence test (AH 4) designed for an unselected population. In the two later experiments, a group of Technical College students and a group of Naval Ratings were repeatedly tested on another intelligence test (AH 5), designed for a population of high-grade intelligence, such as university students. Examination of all the results confirms the artificiality of the “ceiling effect” which was suspected in the first experiment; it suggests that, given sufficient scope, subjects of all levels of intelligence would, with repeated trials on the same test, continue to improve their score up to and beyond 10 testing; and that, given comparable opportunity, subjects with initially higher scores will tend to improve more than those with initially lower scores. All these results concern short-term experiments with testing at weekly intervals.

The four sets of results considered jointly indicate that conclusions on these problems should be drawn only in terms of the relation between the level of the test and that of the group tested: this offers some resolution of the conflicting findings of earlier investigators.     

不同认知结构被试的测验设计模式

正如不同的病症需要使用不同的医疗技术方法来诊断一样, 不同的认知结构也需要设计对应的测验模式来进行诊断, 从而保证测验具有高质量的诊断评估效果。但传统测验形式未考虑不同认知结构的针对性诊断测验需求, 导致“千人一卷”在测验效率上有所不足; 认知诊断计算机化自适应测验虽可针对不同认知结构的被试施测不同的项目, 然而支持自适应过程的题库却没有针对不同认知结构被试设计对应的项目, 导致题库使用效率较低。要解决上述问题的关键在于, 探索如何针对不同认知结构设计相对应的测验模式。本研究采用Monte Carlo模拟, 对六种属性层级关系下, 不同认知结构的测验设计模式进行探讨。实验结果表明(1)同一属性层级关系下, 不同认知结构的最佳测验设计模式不同; (2)依据不同认知结构的最佳测验设计模式构建的题库具有更高的使用效率。测验编制者可以根据实验结果针对不同认知结构优化对应的测验设计模式, 并用于指导题库建设。     

Sequential variables and the Kamin effect

The results of two experiments demonstrated that retention deficits occurred in a within-subjects design only when the intermediate interval test was either the first or second test of the retention of prior aversive conditioning experience; when two relearning tests preceded a 1-hr test, no performance deficits were observed. It was suggested that internal cues may serve as memory attributes of avoidance behavior during early stages of avoidance learning, while other stimuli may facilitate the retrieval of the memory of prior avoidance training with repeated testing.     

耳标在小屏幕界面设计中的应用

耳标是一种向用户提供计算机客体、操作或交互信息的非言语听觉信号。本文比较了言语听觉界面与非言语听觉界面的特点 ,并就非言语听觉界面设计中的两种基本表征方式———耳标技术和听标技术的优缺点做了简单介绍 ,指出耳标技术是用于小屏幕界面设计的有效方式之一。作者重点概述了耳标的构成元素、构成方式以及信息呈现方式 ,并从功效学角度对耳标设计原则作了简要总结