Some Possible Antecedents of Military Personnel Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) describes actions in which employees are willing to go above and beyond their prescribed role requirements. Little or no attention has been paid to the OCB from military perspective. The purpose of this article is to investigate job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational justice, and trust in supervisor as the potential antecedents of OCB in a military setting. The research hypotheses are tested using sample data collected from 301 military personnel. The proposed antecedents were positively related to OCB. Yet, hierarchical regression analysis reveals that job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and trust in supervisor account for unique variances in OCB of the military personnel. Implications for the theory and practice of OCB are discussed, limitations of the study are discussed, and future research directions offered.     

Long-Term Trajectories and Service Needs for Military Families

The deployment of US military personnel to recent conflicts has been a significant stressor for their families; yet, we know relatively little about the long-term family effects of these deployments. Using data from prior military service eras, we review our current understanding of the long-term functioning and needs of military families. These data suggest that overseas deployment, exposure to combat, experiencing or participating in violence during war deployment, service member injury or disability, and combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) all have profound impacts on the functioning of military families. We offer several recommendations to address these impacts such as the provision of family-centered, trauma-informed resources to families of veterans with PTSD and veterans who experienced high levels of combat and war violence. Recent efforts to address the needs of caregivers of veterans should be evaluated and expanded, as necessary. We should also help military families plan for predictable life events likely to challenge their resilience and coping capacities. Future research should focus on the following: factors that mediate the relationship between PTSD, war atrocities, caregiver burden, and family dysfunction; effective family-centered interventions that can be scaled-up to meet the needs of a dispersed population; and system-level innovations necessary to ensure adequate access to these interventions.     

Military and Crime: A Systematic Review of the Literature

ABSTRACT

This study systematically analyzed the literature on the effects of military participation on later criminal behavior. When all studies were analyzed as a whole, the findings did not indicate a clear effect. However, a focus upon specific offense types revealed that the military experience decreased non-violent crime but increased violent crime. Active military personnel tended to be less likely to commit crime. Some evidence demonstrated that male and non-white veterans committed more crime than their civilian counterparts, but future research is needed to replicate these subgroup differences. Theoretical implications and future research directions are also discussed.     

The Experience of Deployment for Partners of Military Personnel: A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis

It is well acknowledged that deployment can have a significant impact on military personnel; however, the effect on their partners who remain on the homefront is less researched. This meta-synthesis aimed to explore the experience of deployment for partners of military personnel to provide a greater understanding of the challenges and responses involved for them. Noblit and Hare's (1988) meta-ethnographic approach was adopted to synthesize 11 qualitative studies that met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The five core concepts to emerge from the meta-synthesis were the multitude of emotions; methods of coping; communication with their partner; relentless responsibilities; and positive outcomes. These findings provide a developed understanding of how challenges of deployment are managed, including negative outcomes and protective psychological responses and behaviors. The limitations of these findings are discussed, as are clinical implications and recommendations for future research.     

The Transition Experiences of British Military Veterans

The aim of the current research was to investigate the transition experiences of British military veterans upon exiting the military and rejoining civilian society, asking the specific research question: What effect does the transition from military to civilian life have on the individual's identity? Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was employed and seven semistructured interviews were carried out with ex‐military personnel. Analysis of the data revealed three superordinate themes: (1) Several Selves: Identity; (2) Soldier and Society: Separation, and (3) Transition Time: Personal Perspective. Current findings suggest that transition from the military back to civilian life is often problematic, with identity complications, feelings of loss, and disconnection both from the military and from society in general. Individuals with a more salient military identity had more difficult transition experiences. Findings are discussed with reference to theories of identity formation, maintenance, and salience and recommendations for future research are made.     

Intergenerational occupational inheritance in the military: a reexamination

Recent problems the military services have experienced in retaining sufficient personnel to meet growing manpower requirements are unlikely to diminish in the 1980s. As a consequence, it is vital that military decision makers understand the factors that influence career commitments of service members. Based on a stratified probability sample of Air Force married enlisted personnel and officers, this study reexamines the relationship between the military service patterns of fathers and the career intentions of their sons who enlist in military service. It also expands upon past analysis to include the actual career decisions of military men as a dependent variable. In partial support of past research, the present investigation provides no support for an intergenerational linkage between military service patterns of fathers and the career intentions and decisions of their sons--either enlisted members or officers. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Psychological Model of Military Aggressive Behavior: Findings From Population-Based Surveys

The U.S. military has expressed concern about the influence of deployment and combat exposure on the criminal behavior of personnel returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. This study examines the role of behavioral health risk and protective factors associated with combat exposure and criminal and aggressive behavior in active duty Army and Naval personnel. Data from this cross-sectional study are based on two large anonymous, population-based health-related behavior surveys. Findings show that the proportion of all active duty Army and Naval service personnel who reported encounters with law enforcement or committed one or more aggressive acts in the past year increased from 19.41% in 2005 to 22.58% in 2008. Substance use, especially illicit drug use, and mental health problems were significant correlates of criminal and aggressive behavior, as were younger age, male sex, high impulsivity, and work/family stress. Path modeling suggested that several variables, notably combat exposure and history of childhood abuse, appeared to manifest their influence on criminal or aggressive behavior through increases in substance use and mental health problems. The potential mediating influence of substance use and mental health on combat and other trauma experiences has significant implications for preventing criminal and aggressive behavior among U.S. active duty military personnel.     

A Study of Active Duty Military Personnel With the MMPI-2

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) has a long history of application in military settings. Our investigation is an exploration of the relevance and appropriateness of the revised version of this instrument, the MMPI-2, in military settings. The question of whether special norms are needed for use in the military was addressed. Results showed that military personnel (N = 1,156 men from the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps) responded, as a group, in a manner similar to the MMPI-2 restandardized sample. Similar mean scores and factor structures were obtained. Age effects were also studied. Consistent with past research, there were clear age differences on the MMPI-2 with younger subjects producing more scale elevation, particularly on the Psychopathic Deviate (Pd), Psychastenia (Pt), Schizophrenia (Sc), and Hypomania (Ma) scales. The results of the study show that special norms for military settings are not needed.     

Gender and Military Contextual Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Aggression

This study explored individual and military risk factors for intimate partner aggression (IPA) perpetration among Navy personnel in their second year of service. We found some evidence that job stress was related to higher perpetration among men. Contrary to expectations, ship duty was related to lower perpetration rates, even though it involves more military operational stress and more frequent deployments than does shore duty. Premilitary alcohol problems were a stronger risk factor for men than for women, whereas premilitary patterns of aggressive behavior were a stronger risk factor for women. Recommendations for future research and public health interventions are discussed.     

General Issue (G.I.) Strain: Applying Strain Theory to Military Offending

This article explores possible causes of military offending through application of strain theory to a small sample of current U.S. Army personnel. The military provides a unique social environment given the organization and culture of the institution. Criminal behavior of those inside this institution has recently received much media attention, yet has not received much academic attention. Prior research focuses on military-specific crimes and/or the military experiences of current offenders. Through in-depth interviews, measures of strain theory were examined and then applied to reports of offending, ultimately providing insight into strain theory, military offending, and offending in general.     

Racial Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Personnel: Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma as a Theoretical Lens

Various theorists have explored how intergenerational transmission of trauma impacts minority groups. Intergenerational trauma theories suggest that trauma(s) endured by a community have long-standing effects that can be passed on through generations. However, much of the research has focused on indigenous populations or Holocaust survivors despite the historical experiences of the African American community. The minority stress model adds support to intergenerational trauma theories, in that racial minority groups might suffer worse health due to a variety of stressors. Racial minorities are also at greater risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Within military populations, PTSD is one of many mental health issues and has been labeled one of the signature injuries of the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) criteria for PTSD do not take into account the effects of intergenerational trauma, discrimination, or racism. This article proposes that intergenerational trauma theories and the minority stress model provide explanations for why many studies have found that African American military personnel have higher rates of PTSD compared to their White peers. Indeed, African American military personnel with PTSD might be better understood through more culturally inclusive frameworks (e.g., complex trauma, race-based traumatic stress), because the stressors they experience as racial minorities might exacerbate or lead to symptoms of PTSD.     

The Influence of Spirituality and Religion on Coping for Combat‐Deployed Military Personnel

A paucity of research exists examining the role of spirituality/religion (S/R) as a protective factor for combat‐deployed military personnel. The purpose of this study is to (a) define the underlying structure of items from an author‐developed instrument measuring coping, beliefs, and support; and (b) examine how S/R affiliation, activities, and practices affect coping responses for 279 combat‐deployed military personnel. Significant predictors of coping included support, age, Christian affiliation, and frequency of S/R practices. The authors found that beliefs, S/R practices prior to deployment, previous combat deployments, and first deployment were not significant predictors of coping. Implications for counselors and future research are addressed.     

Military children and families: strengths and challenges during peace and war

Throughout history, military children and families have shown great capacity for adaptation and resilience. However, in recent years, unprecedented lengthy and multiple combat deployments of service members have posed multiple challenges for U.S. military children and families. Despite needs to better understand the impact of deployment on military children and families and to provide proper support for them, rigorous research is lacking. Programs exist that are intended to help, but their effectiveness is largely unknown. They need to be better coordinated and delivered at the level of individuals, families, and communities. Research and programs need to take a comprehensive approach that is strengths based and problem focused. Programs for military children and families often focus on the prevention or reduction of problems. It is just as important to recognize their assets and to promote them. This article reviews existing research on military children and families, with attention to their strengths as well as their challenges. Issues in need of further research are identified, especially research into programs that assist military children and families. Military children and families deserve greater attention from psychology.     

A Systematic Review of Suicide Prevention Programs for Military or Veterans

Military personnel and veterans have important suicide risk factors. After a systematic review of the literature on suicide prevention, seven (five in the U.S.) studies of military personnel were identified containing interventions that may reduce the risk of suicide. The effectiveness of the individual components was not assessed, and problems in methodology or reporting of data were common. Overall, multifaceted interventions for active duty military personnel are supported by consistent evidence, although of very mixed quality, and in some cases during intervals of declines in suicide rates in the general population. There were insufficient studies of U.S. Veterans to reach conclusions.     

Measuring optimism bias among military personnel

High numbers of young military personnel die due to road traffic collisions (RTCs). Yet, there is a paucity of research related to the contributing factors (i.e., optimism bias and willingness to take risks) associated with RTCs and the examination of road safety education program tailored at reducing young military fatalities. In order to address this gap in the literature, we examined one specific road safety educational intervention tailored for the UK military personnel and investigated their attitudes towards the program, optimism bias and willingness to take risks. Measures evaluating their optimism bias, willingness to take risks and attitudes towards the program were asked after the participants attended the road safety interventions. The results revealed that young military personnel, aged 18–25, had higher optimism bias and willingness to take risks compared to older military personnel, and that this effect diminishes with age. The results provide importance evidence related to military personnel’s attitudes to risk-taking.     

Moderating Effect of Marital Status on the Association Between Combat Exposure and Post-Deployment Mental Health in Canadian Military Personnel

For military personnel, there are positive and negative aspects of marriage, which may contribute to mental health during times of high stress. The present study investigated the relationship of marital status with three mental health outcomes (general mental health, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression) among 14,624 Canadian military personnel recently deployed in support of the mission in Afghanistan. Greater combat exposure was associated with poorer postdeployment mental health, but marital status was, on its own, only slightly associated with PTSD. Marital status significantly moderated the relationship between combat exposure and mental health: For both single and married participants, mental health declined as combat exposure increased, but this association was stronger for married members. This association could be due to the additional familial demands that married personnel may face upon their return from deployment or to the stresses associated with poor marital satisfaction. Overall, results suggest that the relationship between marital status and mental health after deployment is complex and may vary according to other factors.     

Influences on Job Search Self-Efficacy of Spouses of Enlisted Military Personnel

In this cross-sectional study we examine antecedents of the job search self-efficacy (JSSE) of 6,411 spouses of enlisted military personnel. Drawing on social cognitive theory, we suggest that individual circumstances either impact an individual's mastery beliefs about job search skills or act as barriers, which can impede job search activity and efficacy through a form of resource drain. Antecedents explored in this analysis represent environmental, behavioral, and personal factors that may be associated with self-efficacy beliefs. Structural equation modeling analysis indicates that mastery mechanisms of current employment status, education level, financial resources, and use of employment assistance programs offered by the military are positively related to JSSE. In addition, family responsibility variables (e.g., number of children and financial resources) operate as barriers to JSSE via childcare conflict's negative relationship with this specific form of self-efficacy. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.     

The Health and Well-Being of Military Drone Operators and Intelligence Analysts: A Systematic Review

The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing research on the health and well-being of military drone operators and intelligence analysts in order to provide an overview of research and identify gaps in this area. Six literature databases and 2 databases containing unclassified military reports were searched for relevant papers produced between January 1996 and May 2016. The search criteria were broad to allow for the identification of all relevant studies on the topic. Fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria; all of which were conducted in the U.S. with the U.S. Air Force personnel. The main sources of occupational stress reported by participants across the studies were operational. The rates of mental health diagnoses, including PTSD, were low, but levels of psychological distress were higher in drone and intelligence operators than in comparison groups. Fatigue emerged as a significant concern. It is important that future studies examine a variety of mental and physical health outcomes. The health and well-being of drone operators and intelligence analysts should be studied not just in the U.S., but also in other countries that are using drones for military purposes.     

Characteristics and Effectiveness of an Intensive Military Outpatient Treatment Program for PTSD

This study describes the characteristics and global effectiveness of treatment of a military intensive outpatient treatment program for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Thirty-nine military personnel completed treatment outcome questionnaires. Results showed a statistically significant reduction in depression and PTSD symptoms after the participants completed 3 weeks of intensive outpatient therapy. The findings have clinical and research implications for the length, intensity, and focus of PTSD treatment.     

Targeting Self-Stigma in Returning Military Personnel and Veterans: A Review of Intervention Strategies

Research suggests that mental health-related stigma significantly decreases the use of mental health services by military personnel and veterans. The goal of this article is to review what is known about mental health stigma as it relates to military personnel and veterans, as well as to offer an interpretive review of self-stigma intervention strategies that have been applied within the field. Target areas for future work and the concerns and challenges faced by interventionists are discussed.