Linking personal values to gender

Two studies were conducted to investigate the relation between personal values and aspects of gender. Study 1 used the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) to examine the nature of stereotypes concerning the values of the “typical man” and the “typical woman”. Results supported the hypothesis that men are viewed as more likely to endorse agentic values, such as freedom and accomplishment, whereas women are viewed as more likely to endorse communal values, such as friendship and equality. Study 2 assessed men and women's possession of stereotypic sets of masculine and feminine values, using the RVS, and examined their relation to gender-related personality traits, gender-related interests and role behaviors, and global self-perceptions of masculinity and femininity. Masculine values were found to be significantly related to socially desirable masculine traits, socially undesirable masculine traits, masculine interests and a global self-concept of masculinity. Feminine values were shown to be significantly related to socially desirable feminine traits, feminine interests, feminine role behaviors, and a global self-concept of femininity. These results suggest that gender-linked personal values merit inclusion with traits, interests, role behaviors, and global self-concepts as part of an emerging multidimensional conception of gender characteristics.     

The Factor Structure of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory

Seventy-seven female and 86 male psychologist practitioners filled out the Bem Sex Rote Inventory to describe either a healthy adult male, healthy adult female, or healthy adult, sex unspecified. Analyzing the data according to Bem's classification of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny produced a significant Scale X Condition interaction with male and female practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine than feminine traits to healthy adult men, yet displaying no comparable differences when rating healthy adult women. Analyzing the data according to Spence's classification of masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated produced a Group X Condition interaction with practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine traits to healthy adult men and significantly more feminine traits to healthy adult women. Reanalyses omitting "masculine" and "feminine" from Bem's fist of sex-typed traits produced nonsignificant results. The relationship of this to recent criticisms of the construct validity of the BSRI and to the validity of earlier results of therapist sex-role bias was discussed.     

Assessment of sex-role stereotyping among male and female psychologist practitioners

Seventy-seven female and 86 male psychologist practitioners filled out the Bem Sex Rote Inventory to describe either a healthy adult male, healthy adult female, or healthy adult, sex unspecified. Analyzing the data according to Bem's classification of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny produced a significant Scale X Condition interaction with male and female practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine than feminine traits to healthy adult men, yet displaying no comparable differences when rating healthy adult women. Analyzing the data according to Spence's classification of masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated produced a Group X Condition interaction with practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine traits to healthy adult men and significantly more feminine traits to healthy adult women. Reanalyses omitting "masculine" and "feminine" from Bem's fist of sex-typed traits produced nonsignificant results. The relationship of this to recent criticisms of the construct validity of the BSRI and to the validity of earlier results of therapist sex-role bias was discussed.     

Sex-specific variation in facial masculinity/femininity associated with autistic traits in the general population

Reports linking prenatal testosterone exposure to autistic traits and to a masculinized face structure have motivated research investigating whether autism is associated with facial masculinization. This association has been reported with greater consistency for females than for males, in studies comparing groups with high and low levels of autistic traits. In the present study, we conducted two experiments to examine facial masculinity/femininity in 151 neurotypical adults selected for either low, mid-range, or high levels of autistic traits. In the first experiment, their three-dimensional facial photographs were subjectively rated by 41 raters for masculinity/femininity and were objectively analysed. In the second experiment, we generated 6-face composite images, which were rated by another 36 raters. Across both experiments, findings were consistent for ratings of photographs and composite images. For females, a linear relationship was observed where femininity ratings decreased as a function of higher levels of autistic traits. For males, we found a U-shaped function where males with mid-range levels of traits were rated lowest on masculinity. Objective facial analyses revealed that higher levels of autistic traits were associated with less feminine facial structures in females and less masculine structures in males. These results suggest sex-specific relationships between autistic traits and facial masculinity/femininity.     

Note on the factor structure of the Bern Sex-Role Inventory

The scores of BSRI, a questionnaire measuring psychological androgyny, i.e. the extent to which a person possess traits that are traditionally considered feminine and traits that are traditionally considered masculine, were subjected to a factor analysis. The BSRI was administered to 100 women and 100 men, between 20 and 60 years of age. The analysis gave two factors for women, interpreted as a Femininity factor and a Masculinity factor, and three factors for men, interpreted as a Femininity factor and two Masculinity factors. A shorter version of the BSRI is also suggested. These results support the notion that femininity and masculinity are best considered two independent dimensions.     

The Influence of Masculinity and Femininity in Different Advertising Processing Contexts: An Accessibility Perspective

The accessibility of self-rated masculinity and femininity is proposed to vary as a function of individual differences, product types, and affective states. In turn, enhanced accessibility of masculinity or femininity should increase the influence of masculine or feminine ad-self congruency on advertisement evaluations. Results of two experiments showed that, for individuals whose masculinity or femininity was chronically accessible, congruency between ad portrayals and self-ratings on these dimensions predicted more positive attitudes toward the advertisement. Moreover, product types and affective states altered the degree of influence that masculine or feminine ad-self congruency exerted on advertisement evaluations. Finally, individuals high in masculinity were found to rely more on product function beliefs when evaluating advertised brands.     

Gender role and personality disorders

Many researchers have hypothesized relationships between personality disorders and gender role (i.e., masculinity and femininity). However, research has not addressed if people who are masculine or feminine more often meet the criteria for personality disorders. The present study examined whether college students (N = 665, 60% women) higher in masculinity or femininity more often exhibited features of the 10 DSM-IV personality disorders. Feminine men exhibited more features of all the personality disorders except antisocial. Dependent traits were associated with higher femininity and lower masculinity. Antisocial traits were associated with masculinity. Both men and women who typically behaved consistent with their gender had more narcissistic and histrionic features, whereas participants who typically behaved unlike their gender had more features of the Cluster A personality disorders.     

Sex-role identity and self-esteem in female graduate nursing students

This study investigated masculinity and femininity characteristics and levels of self-esteem of 96 female graduate nursing students between the ages of 20 and 50. The instruments used were incorporated into a questionnaire which was mailed to each student. Self-esteem was measured by a version of Coopersmith's Self-Esteem Inventory which Good and Good modified to adapt to adult standards. To measure femininity and masculinity, a shortened version of the Bem Sex Role Inventory was used: Subjects rated themselves along a 7-point Likert scale for 10 masculine and 10 feminine traits. The categorical method of scoring by Spence, Helmreich, and Stapp was employed. The students were fairly evenly distributed across the following four categories: low masculine-low feminine; low masculine-high feminine; high masculine-low feminine; and high masculinehigh feminine. The students in the high masculine-low feminine and the high masculine-high feminine categories were found to have a statistically higher mean self-esteem than the students in the low masculine-low feminine and low masculne-high feminine categories. Implications were mentioned regarding the development of a high degree of both masculine and feminine characteristics in nurses.     

In the Eye of the Beholder: Knowledge that a Man is Gay Promotes American College Students’ Attributions of Cross-Gender Characteristics

In this study, we examine whether an actual (rather than hypothetical) man being labeled “gay” either by himself or by another influences American (US) undergraduates’ attributions of the man’s masculinity, femininity, and likeability, replicating (with refinements) a similar study from the 1970s. One hundred ninety-two male and 591 female undergraduates, almost exclusively white, in Kentucky observed two gender-typical white men (one very masculine and the other of average masculinity, both low in femininity, both gay) play a word game on videotape; prior to playing, each man labeled either himself or the other man as either gay or adopted. Male participants rated the men as less masculine and more feminine than female participants, but the label used did not differentially influence male and female participants. Both male and female participants rated each man less masculine and more feminine when labeled gay than when the other man was labeled gay, and rated the more masculine man less masculine and more feminine when labeled gay than when labeled adopted. Whether either man was labeled by himself or by the other man, or whether either man was a labeler or in the presence of a self-labeler, had no effect on participants’ ratings of the men’s masculinity or femininity. Both men were rated as likeable across all conditions. While the stereotype of gay men as more feminine and less masculine than other men appears robust since the 1970 study, the dislike of gay men appears to have abated.     

Masculinity and femininity in middle childhood: Developmental and factor analyses

Developmental differences in children's self-perceptions of masculinity and femininity during the middle childhood period were investigated in English-speaking children from Grades 2–7 (N=517). The majority of participants were Caucasian and from middle socioeconomic families. The multidimensionality of masculinity and femininity was also examined. The Children's Personal Attributes Questionnaire (CPAQ), a standardized self-report instrument, was used to assess masculinity (instrumentality) and femininity (socioemotional expressiveness). Developmental differences were found within a cross-sectional design, with a decrease in feminine responding and an increase in masculine responding. At the item level, however, both boys and girls were relatively selective and limited in the items that had a grade effect. Interestingly, greater symmetry was observed between boys' masculine and feminine scores than between girls' scores. Furthermore, fewer boys had predominantly masculine responding than girls had predominantly feminine responding. Factor analysis provided initial support for the presence of three factors—interpersonal orientation, leadership, and emotionality—which appear to have greater specificity and reflect more distinct subtraits than the original scales of the CPAQ. The results of the present study suggest that meaningful developmental changes occur during the middle childhood period, and that a single summary score for masculinity or femininity ignores variations in gender-typed subtraits and thus raises both scoring and interpretation concerns.     

Reexamination of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory: The Interpersonal BSRI

The 40 masculine and feminine items of 746 Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bern, 1974) were subjected to a principal axis factor analysis with varimax rotation. Results revealed a four-factor solution, indicating that the original BSRI items do not provide two unidimensional ratings of femininity and masculinity. However, some support is given to Bern's initial two-factor thesis in that two principal factors emerged: one consisting of items that were originally identified as feminine, the other consisting of items that were originally identified as masculine. Content examination of the two principal factors resulted in an interpretation of the factors as Interpersonal Sensitivity and Interpersonal Potency. Internal consistency and validity of these two scales were examined and found to be adequate.     

Psychological Masculinity amid Femininity: Relationship to Striving and Self-Concept in the Achievement and Interpersonal Domains

The relative influences of gender and individual differences in psychological masculinity and femininity on the achievement and interpersonal strivings, abilities, and self-concepts of 176 male and female college students were investigated. The results indicate that psychological masculinity and femininity are better predictors of strivings and self-concepts in the achievement and interpersonal domains than gender. Only with respect to subjects' expected and ideal financial responsibilities, an area which is governed by strong societal sex role norms, does the influence of gender surpass that of psychological masculinity and femininity. The results are discussed in terms of the personality strengths and social competencies that derive from masculine and feminine personality traits.     

CHILDHOOD ANTECEDENTS OF ADULT WOMEN'S MASCULINITY, FEMININITY, AND CAREER ROLE CHOICES

This study explores the relationships among childhood activities, masculine and feminine characteristics, and career choices. Sixty–three career women and 62 homemakers ranging in age from 34 to 48 completed a retrospective survey of their childhood activities, interests, aspirations, and academic pursuits. The toys, games, activities, and aspirations listed by the subjects were then assigned masculinity and femininity scores and were used to predict (1) career choice (homemaker or career woman) and (2) current masculinity and femininity as measured by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Adult masculinity was strongly predicted by childhood masculine interests and activities while adult femininity was only weakly predicted by childhood feminine interests and activities. Masculine interests/activities were more powerful in discriminating career women from homemakers than were feminine interests/activities. The results of this study indicate that childhood participation in sex–typed activities is associated with the adult personality characteristics of masculinity and femininity, and adult role choices. These results are discussed in light of longitudinal evidence that suggests that they reflect consistent life–long patterns.     

SEX ROLE ORIENTATION, COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY, AND LIFE SATISFACTION AMONG OLDER ADULTS

Bem's Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) was employed to categorize 101 older adults into masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated sex role orientations. Relationships among these sex role orientations and cognitive flexibility and life satisfaction were explored. Additionally, hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to assess the contributions of masculinity, femininity, and the interaction term (masculinity x femininity) in the prediction of cognitive flexibility and life satisfaction. These older adults did not vary significantly in either their cognitive flexibility or their life satisfaction as a function of their sex role categorization, nor was an appreciable percentage of variance accounted for by the predictor variables in the regression analyses. Issues are raised regarding the validity of the typological (median-split based) approaches used by researchers to assess expectations of the differentiation of masculine and feminine components in older adults. An alternative structural developmental approach, based on a factor-analytic methodology, is proposed.     

Construct validity of the bem sex role inventory (BSRI): Does the BSRI distinguish between gender-schematic and gender-aschematic individuals?

Factor analyses were performed on the masculine, feminine, and neutral items of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) for gender-schematic and gender-aschematic individuals separately. The analyses revealed bipolar masculinity/femininity factors for the gender-schematic group and two unipolar “aschematicity” factors for the gender-aschematic group. The results support gender schema theory's claim that the two types of individuals respond differently to the items of the BSRI. Thus, the BSRI is a valid measure for distinguishing gender-schematic from gender-schematic individuals.     

Sex roles,stress, and distress: A study of person by situation contingency

Literature on the relationship between sex roles and adjustment has suggested that masculine traits, rather than the androgynous interaction of masculine and feminine traits, are associated with positive adjustment. Studies with noncollege student populations, however, raise questions as to the generalizability of these findings. Suggestions that sex role traits are associated with particular defensive styles raise the possibility that the sex role-adjustment link is mediated by situational factors. The present study assessed sex role orientation, depression, hostility, and stress in 105 students of nursing. Femininity predicted positive vocational adjustment within the group, masculinity was associated with lower levels of depression, and femininity predicted lower hostility. Within the sex role orientations studied, androgynous nurses reported lower depression and vocational stress than their undifferentiated counterparts. It is suggested that feminine sex roles, promoting an internalization of threat, aid positive adjustment in settings marked by joint instrumental and interpersonal demands.     

The “good manager”: Sex-typed,androgynous, or likable?

Recent studies have indicated that people describe a “good manager” in masculine terms. It was hypothesized that this could simply reflect cultural stereotypes, rather than people's perceptions of what combination of traits is desirable in a leader. In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects were presented managerial profiles ascribing all masculine, all feminine, or a combination of masculine and feminine traits (i.e., “androgynous” profiles) to hypothetical managers. Feminine-trait combinations were rated as significantly less desirable than either masculine or androgynous combinations, which were rated as equally desirable. Thus, while femininity per se was not seen as desirable in a leader, it was not viewed as a liability when combined with masculinity, a corroboration of much behavioral research on androgyny. Experiment 3 varied trait likableness and sex-role orientation. Experiments 1 and 2 were replicated for unlikable traits. Surprisingly, the opposite pattern was obtained for likable traits: the feminine combinations were rated as the most desirable, and the masculine combinations were rated as the least desirable. The results are discussed in the context of early research on impression formation and recent work on social cognition.     

Fear of success: The influence of sex,sex-role identity,and components of masculinity

Phase I of this experiment was conducted to determine the nature of the relationship between fear of success and sex-role identity. Eighty female and 124 male subjects completed a measure of fear of success (the Sadd Fear of Success Scale, SFOS) and two sex-role scales (the Bem Sex Role Inventory, BSRI; and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire, PAQ). Subjects were subsequently classified by their responses to the BSRI and PAQ as either androgynous, masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated. The results indicated that androgynous and masculine individuals reported less fear of success than feminine or undifferentiated individuals, regardless of their sex. Subsequent analyses revealed that fear of success was more related to the absence of masculine traits than to the presence of feminine traits. Phase II of this investigation was conducted to determine whether a specific component of masculinity was related to the fear of success. The masculinity scales were factor analyzed and factor scores were regressed on the fear-of-success scores. Factor scores reflecting high self-confidence, decisiveness, analyticalness, and independence were related to low levels of fear of success; factor scores reflecting assertiveness, competitiveness, and opinionatedness were not related to the fear of success.