Assessing concrete and abstract thinking with the Draw-a-Person technique

In this study, we examined the Draw-a-Person (DAP) technique as an indicator of concrete/literal and abstract thinking, Subjects (N = 50) included schizophrenic inpatients (n = 25) and college students (n = 25). Fourteen possible indicators of concrete/literal or abstract thinking on the DAP were generated based on theoretical considerations and prior research. Five indicators were eliminated because of their low interrater reliability. The Proverbs Test (Gotham, 1956) was used to establish evidence of concrete/literal and abstract thinking. Scores from the DAP and the Proverbs Test were correlated. Composite scores on the DAP were highly correlated (r = .52, p < .01) with the corresponding Proverbs Test score. In addition, abstract scores on the DAP were correlated (r = .54, p < .01) with a similar Proverbs Test score.. Concrete/literal DAP scores did not correlate significantly (r = .20, p > .05) with concrete/literal Proverb Test scores. Results indicate the potential for using the DAP technique to assess concrete/literal and abstract thinking when a nonverbal test is needed.     

Primary Process Thinking,Divergent Thinking,and Coping in Children

The relationships among primary process thinking, divergent thinking, and coping were investigated in fifth-grade children. Specifically, it was hypothesized from psychodynamic theory that access to and integration of primary process thinking would be positively related to divergent thinking and that both integration of primary process and divergent thinking would be predictive of coping ability. The Rorschach (Holt's scoring system) and Alternate Uses Test (spontaneous flexibility score) were administered to 53 fifth-grade children. Zeitlin's Coping Inventory, a teacher's rating scale, was the coping measure. Results confirmed the hypotheses for boys in that the percentage of primary process and the Adaptive Regression score on the Rorschach were significantly related to divergent thinking, r(27) = .33, p < .05 and r(27) = .34, p < .05, respectively. Divergent thinking was significantly related to teachers' ratings of coping ability for boys, r(27) = .58, p < .01. There were no significant relationships among the variables for girls. These sex differences in the pattern of correlations are consistent with previous findings.     

The reliability and validity of a measure of reported affinity for figurative language

Figurative language, as the linguistic expression of metaphoric thought, occupies a central place in the study of human cognition and creativity. This article describes four initial investigations of the reliability and validity of a measure of affinity for figurative language. In Study 1, a factor analysis of the Language Preference Report (LPR) yielded three orthogonally rotated components of affinity for figurative language: Liking to Produce Figurative Language, General Dislike of Figurative Language, and Liking to Study Texts Which Include Figurative Language. The factors, based on 540 responses, accounted for 73% of the total variance and were correlated with each other (absolute values between .55 and .36). Study 2, based on repeated administrations to 103 students at 2‐week intervals, investigated the reliability of the LPR Internal consistency estimates ranged from .92 to .84, and test‐retest reliability estimates ranged from .86 to .69. In Study 3, 39 students responded to both the LPR and the Similes Test. Participants’ Similes Test scores were significantly correlated with the LPR Production factor (r = .53, p < .001) and the Study factor (V = .36, p < .05). In Study 4, 79 students completed the LPR and later read 3000 words of text in which they were presented with 20 opportunities to choose figurative or literal sentence completions. The number of figurative completions chosen was significantly correlated with the LPR Dislike factor (r = ‐.65, p < .0001), the Study factor (r = .63, p <. 0001), and the Production factor (r = .50, p < .001). These findings support the conclusion that this measure of affinity for figurative language is sufficiently reliable and valid for researching individual differences in creativity, problem solving, language production, and learning from text.     

Comparison between Gorham's Proverbs Test and the revised Shipley Institute of Living Scale for a black population

A total of 278 black women (183) and men (95) were administered the Gorham's Proverbs Test and the Shipley Institute of Living Scale (revised). This study compared Abstract scores on the Gorham's Proverbs Test with Vocabulary and Abstract scores on the Shipley Institute of Living Scale. The two tests were remarkably similar in terms of score distributions and susceptibility to the effects of age, perceived socioeconomic level during childhood, education, and perceived quality of education. Analysis also showed that abstract reasoning, as measured by these tests, is not free from the effects of vocabulary skills. Mean scores on both tests were within the range of mean scores previously reported in the literature.     

The Relationship Between the WISC-III and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test with Students Referred for Gifted Evaluation

A tolal of 29 students (mean age = 7.96 yrs) who were referred for gifted evaluation in an affluent suburban school district in Western Pennsylvania were administered the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) and the WISC-III. Paired t-tests comparing the K-BIT mean IQ (120.59) with the WISC-III Verbal (123.65), Performance (118.86) and Full Scale (122.86) IQs yielded no statistically significant differences (t (28) = 1.49, p = .15; t(28) = -0.74, p = .47; t(28) = 1.35, p = .19, respectively). Correlational analyses indicated that the K-BIT and WISC-III Verbal (r = .35. p < .05), Performance (f = .35, p < .05), and Full Scale IQs (r = 53, p < .01) correlated significantly. The limitations and implications of the study are discussed.     

Primary process thinking, divergent thinking, and coping in children

The relationships among primary process thinking, divergent thinking, and coping were investigated in fifth-grade children. Specifically, it was hypothesized from psychodynamic theory that access to and integration of primary process thinking would be positively related to divergent thinking and that both integration of primary process and divergent thinking would be predictive of coping ability. The Rorschach (Holt's scoring system) and Alternate Uses Test (spontaneous flexibility score) were administered to 53 fifth-grade children. Zeitlin's Coping Inventory, a teacher's rating scale, was the coping measure. Results confirmed the hypotheses for boys in that the percentage of primary process and the Adaptive Regression score on the Rorschach were significantly related to divergent thinking, r(27) = .33, p less than .05 and r(27) = .34, p less than .05, respectively. Divergent thinking was significantly related to teachers' ratings of coping ability for boys, r(27) = .58, p less than .01. There were no significant relationships among the variables for girls. These sex differences in the pattern of correlations are consistent with previous findings.     

The association between the behavior rating inventory of executive functioning and cognitive testing in children diagnosed with a brain tumor

Pediatric brain tumor survivors (PBTS) suffer from cognitive late effects, such as deteriorating executive functioning (EF). We explored the suitability of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) to screen for these late effects. We assessed the relationship between the BRIEF and EF tasks, and between the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher, and we explored the clinical utility. Eighty-two PBTS (8–18 years) were assessed with EF tasks measuring attention, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, visual-, and working memory (WM), and with the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher. Pearson’s correlations between the BRIEF and EF tasks, and between the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher were calculated. The BRIEF-Parent related poorly to EF tasks (rs < .26, ps > .01), but of the BRIEF-Teacher the WM-scale, Monitor-scale, Behavioral-Regulation-Index, and Meta-cognition-Index, and Total-score (rs > .31, ps < .01) related significantly to some EF tasks. When controlling for age, only the WM scale and Total score related significantly to the attention task (ps < .01). The inhibit scales of the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher correlated significantly (r = .33, p < .01). Children with clinically elevated scores on BRIEF scales that correlated with EF tasks performed worse on all EF tasks (ds 0.56–1.23, ps < .05). The BRIEF-Teacher Total and Index scores might better screen general EF in PBTS than the BRIEF-Parent. However, the BRIEF-Teacher is also not specific enough to capture separate EFs. Solely relying on the BRIEF as a screening measure of EFs in BPTS is insufficient. Questionnaires and tasks give distinctive, valuable information.     

Sex differences in expressive drawing

We examined sex differences in expressive drawings produced by 105 boys and 105 girls aged 9-15 years. The drawings were classified according to the type of expressive strategy used to depict emotion (literal, content, abstract, or any combination of these), and rated according to the complexity of that strategy. A creative/divergent thinking task (figural form) was used to assess the relationship between expressive drawing and figural creativity. As predicted, girls scored higher than boys on the expressive drawing task. Specifically, girls relied less often on literal strategies alone and were more likely to combine literal expression with metaphorical (content and abstract) expression than boys. There was a linear relationship between expressive drawing and divergent thinking scores. These results are consistent with the idea that boys and girls differ in the expressive component of emotion, and suggest that these sex differences extend to the expressive drawing domain. They also suggest that divergent thinking may be involved in the ability to draw expressively.     

Relationship between creativity and right,left, and integrated thinking styles

ABSTRACT:

The purpose of the present study was to explore whether the so‐called “right thinking style” is related to creativity as measured by two types of creativity tests. The How Do You Think (HDYT) inventory evaluates personality and biographical information related to creativity, and the Sounds and Images is a type of divergent thinking test that assesses the originality of images elicited by abstract sounds. As a second purpose, this study permitted an analysis of the relationship between these two types of creativity measures. The two creativity measures and the Your Style of Learning and Thinking (SOLAT) test were administered to 109 undergraduates. Results indicated that the HDYT scores were positively correlated with right thinking scores on the SOLAT (r = .48) and negatively correlated with left thinking scores (r = ‐.70). Results from Sounds and Images were not as clear. Similar relationships were found when overlapping items were removed from the various measures.     

Use of the ten-point clock test to compare executive functioning across 24 months in patients with subcortical vascular dementia

The Ten-point Clock Test can be used to identify early forms of Alzheimer's disease because it is reliable, well accepted, and easily administered at the bedside. Nevertheless, its clinical role in the detection of early dementia and its correlations with other cognitive processes is still under investigation. Vascular dementia is an uncertain nosological entity, in which unevenly distributed patterns of cognitive deficits comprising slowing of cognitive processing and impairment of executive function occur. The present study assessed how the Clock Test scores correlated with a number of other neuropsychological and functional tests in a sample of 144 patients with vascular dementia, who were followed for a period of 24 mo. At baseline, at 12 mo. and at 24 mo. subjects were administered a battery of tests, including the Mini-Mental State Examination, word fluency, visuospatial skills, an evaluation of hetero- and autotopognosia (knowledge of self), the Proverbs Test, and the Ten-point Clock Test. For these patients scores on the Clock Test correlated significantly with semantic abilities, with abstract reasoning capacities, visuospatial perception, and with right and left recognition.     

Upper Left Hand Placement of Human Figure Drawings as an Indicator of Anxiety

The present study explored the validity of upper left hand placement as an indicator of anxiety in human figure drawings. The DAP and the IPAT Anxiety Scale were administered to 103 college students. Their drawings were then judged for the presence or absence of the indicator under investigation. A Mann-Whitney U-test was used to test for differences in anxiety scores between the indicator present and the indicator absent group. Significant differences were found (p < .01) supporting the hypothesis that upper left placement is a valid indicator of anxiety.     

Familiarity with proverbs and performance of a black population on Gorham's Proverbs Test

The Gorham Proverbs Test was administered to 278 black participants residing in a large metropolitan area in Southern California. Respondents were also asked to indicate whether they were familiar with each of the 40 proverbs in the test. Scores were significantly affected by respondents' ages, education, and perceived childhood socioeconomic status. Familiarity with a proverb increased the probability of its correct interpretation. Familiarity of proverbs and attempts to interpret them were significantly associated, that is, respondents tended not to attempt interpretation of unfamiliar proverbs. The number of familiar proverbs per test was not significantly associated with respondents' test scores. The mean Abstract score obtained in this study was comparable to mean scores previously reported in the literature, suggesting that ethnic differences do not significantly affect performance on the Proverbs Test.     

Field independence and laterality in the perception of faces.

For a sample of 28 college males the degree of left visual-field bias in the perception of faces correlated .45 (p less than .01) with extent of field-independent performance, as assessed by a composite score based on the Embedded-Figures Test, the Rod-and-Frame Test, and ratings on the Articulation-of-Body-Concept Scale. In a second study with 16 female and 10 male college subjects using the Group Embedded-Figures Test, field-independent subjects again showed greater left visual-field lateralization of face perception (r = .43, p less than .05). Based on Witkin's view of field independence as a manifestation of psychological differentiation, possible links between extent of differentiation at the psychological and neurophysiological levels are suggested.     

The Relationship Between Creativity and Conformity Among Preschool Children

The current study investigated the relationship between creativity and conformity based on the work of Starkweather (1964). The subjects were 45 preschool children. Creativity was assessed using the Multidimensional Stimulus Fluency Measure (Moran, Sawyers, Fu, & Milgram, 1983), an original thinking task. Two forms of conformity were assessed: social conformity and impersonal conformity using the Starkweather Social Conformity Test and the Starkweather Form Boards Test respectively (Starkweather, 1964). Starkweather's hypothesis of a curvilinear relationship between conformity and creativity was found for the social conformity task (X² = 11.69, p < .01). The findings support the hypothesis that highly conforming and highly nonconforming children do not score as high on creativity measurements as their freedom of expression (i.e., not following a rigid pattern of conforming/nonconforming) counterparts. Chi‐square analyses revealed significantly more children in the high creativity and freedom of expression group as compared to the low creativity and conforming/nonconforming children. That is, significantly fewer children were found in the low conformity/low creativity cell and more in the low conformity/high creativity cell than were expected by chance. No differences were found for impersonal conformity, perhaps due to the insensitivity of the instrumentation to assess conformity. It is concluded that freedom of expression may be seen as an important personality trait in the identification and nurturance of creative potential and problem solving in young children.     

An exploratory study of the facets of Type A personality and scores on the Machiavellian Behavior (MACH-B) Scale

The relationship of two facets of Type A personality, Achievement Striving and Impatience-Irritability, with Mach-B scores was investigated. Mach-B scores were not correlated with Achievement Striving and were positively correlated (r = .37; p < .01) with Impatience-Irritability in a sample of 51 hospital employees including physicians (n = 12), nurses (n = 12), administrative staff (n = 13), and custodial services employees (n = 14).     

Restlessness and psychomotor agitation after kidney transplantation: their impact on perceived health status

Restlessness and psychomotor agitation are among the causes of morbidity and mortality in different diseases. They are known problems in end-stage renal disease patients but no study has ever evaluated their presence and effects in kidney recipients. This study aimed to explore the presence of restlessness and psychomotor agitation and their relation with morbidity of patients after renal transplantation. Sixty-one subjects were randomly selected from kidney transplant recipients being followed in Baqiyatallah Hospital, Tehran, Iran. Restlessness and psychomotor agitation were determined by Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The correlation of these scores with demographic data, clinical data, sexual function, marital adjustment, quality of life, sleep quality and medical comorbidity of patients was evaluated. The scores of restlessness and psychomotor agitation were significantly correlated with the age at transplantation (r = .269, p = .04 and r = .324, p = .01, respectively), the total score of medical comorbidity (r = .273, p = .02 and r = .257, p = .04, respectively), role limitation due to emotional problems (r = -.26, p = .03 and r = -.25, p = .04, respectively) and mental health (r = -.277, p = .02 and r = -.252, p = .04 respectively). There was no correlation between these symptoms and the gender, marital status, and sexual relationship score of the patients (p > .05). Restlessness and psychomotor agitation are frequent and can impose high degrees of morbidity on renal transplant recipients. Proper management of these problems seems to improve the different aspects of quality of life in these patients.     

Use of the Beck Depression Inventory-II with Adolescent Psychiatric Outpatients

To provide information on the use of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) with adolescents, the BDI-II was administered to 105 male and 105 female outpatients between 12 and 18 years old who were seeking psychiatric treatment. The internal consistency of the BDI-II was high (coefficient = .92). The mean BDI-II total score of the girls was approximately 5 points higher than that of the boys (p < .001), and age (years) was positively correlated with the BDI-II total scores (r = .18, p < .01). An iterated principal-factor analysis identified three factors, but only the Cognitive and Somatic-Affective factors were generalizable.     

Comprehension and memory of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs

Proverbs were used to examine recognition memory for four types of sentence information (figurative meaning, literal meaning, lexical information, syntactic information) with two levels of comprehension. Forced-choice recognition tasks showed that subjects were successful in remembering all four types of information. Recognition scores for the figurative meaning of unfamiliar proverbs presented in isolation were above chance and were also significantly improved when procedures were employed which encouraged comprehension of this level of meaning. The results are most consistent with theories of comprehension which provide for different types of processing for figurative and literal language.     

The Defense Mechanism Test predicts inadequate performance under stress

Perceptual defense reactions as tested by the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT) correlated to specific performance criteria in parachutists and divers. In the parachute study ( N =34), 8 trainees were identified on the Reaction Formation variable of the DMT, and 6 were among the Ss ( N =8) who failed the performance test (χ²=15.14, phi =0.67, p <0.001). In the diver study ( N =45), performance was impaired by the nitrogen narcosis produced by the high partial pressure of nitrogen. Memory was significant reduced both when recall and learning were done under narcosis ( t (44)=4.08, p <0.01, and t (44)=4.90, p <0.01). The reduction on reasoning capacity proved insignificant, but using the median reduction as cut score, the Reaction Formation variable correlated significantly with the reduction (χ²=6.51, phi =0.39, p <0.02). Memory and learning effect/reasoning tests did not correlate to any of the DMT variables using the median as a cut score. Using the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Test (TMAS) as a moderator variable, a significant correlation between reduction on the reasoning test and the combined score high anxiety/high defense was obtained (χ²=15.23, phi = 0.83, p <0.001).     

Redundancy in perceptual-motor testing: confirmation and generalization.

The Developmental Test of Visual-motor Integration was administered to 63 children in regular classrooms and 51 children in Special Education. Prediction based on total score (r = .68) was similar to a multiple R utilizing only five scores (.67). The over-all raw test score, based on all 24 designs, correctly classified 85% of the children while a combined abbreviated score utilizing only 5 designs achieved an 80% differentiation. Results were interpreted as confirming the hypothesis of redundancy in this perceptual-motor test.