The Morality of Motorcycling

Abstract

Personal motor vehicle use is a common, yet dangerous, practice. While using a motor vehicle one poses himself and others to risk. If it is immoral to pose unnecessary risk to others, it is immoral to drive a car when an alternative is readily available. In this paper I claim that there is a morally better, readily available, alternative to driving a car alone: using a motorcycle. While this claim might sound dubious at first, I will show why it is sound and stands against all kinds of objections. I believe most people should switch from cars to motorcycles as their primary means of transportation, and governments should adopt policies to help people make this switch.     

Child restraint system use in the United Arab Emirates

ObjectiveDeaths and injuries among infants due to traffic crashes in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are very high when compared to other countries. An efficient way to improve the safety of children in moving vehicles is to use Child Restraint Systems (CRS) to hold the child during any possible collision. The aim of this study is to estimate the rate of CRS use among children under the age of five in UAE, to determine demographic characteristics that affect CRS use, such as parent’s age, and education level, and to assess parents’ perceptions and knowledge of this issue.MethodsA roadside observational study was done in two of the seven emirates that constitute UAE, involving 1000 randomly taken observations. Also, a questionnaire was randomly distributed to a sample of 494 parents of children under the age of five.ResultsResults of the observational study show that 16.7% of parents restrain their children in moving motor vehicles. Questionnaire results show that approximately 9% of respondents reported not or rarely restraining their children in moving motor vehicles. Also, 3.4% of them indicated their disbelief in the importance of CRS in reducing harm in case of a crash. Moreover, questionnaire results indicate that young, less educated and male parents reported lower use rate and have less belief in the importance of CRS use in harm reduction in crashes than other groups of parents.ConclusionsCRS use in UAE is very low and awareness of its importance needs to be improved. Based on the results, practical suggestions are put forward to increase CRS use rate and improve safety conditions for this group of road users.     

Cyclists’ intentions to yield for automated cars at intersections when they have right of way: Results of an experiment using high-quality video animations

What will cyclists do in future conflict situations with automated cars at intersections when the cyclist has the right of way? In order to explore this, short high-quality animation videos of conflicts between a car and a cyclist at five different intersections were developed. These videos were ‘shot’ from the perspective of the cyclist and ended when a collision was imminent should the car or the bicyclist not slow down. After each video participants indicated whether they would slow down or continue cycling, how confident they were about this decision, what they thought the car would do, and how confident they were about what the car would do. The appearance of the approaching car was varied as within-subjects variable with 3 levels (Car type): automated car, automated car displaying its intentions to the cyclists, and traditional car. In all situations the cyclist had right of way. Of each conflict, three versions were made that differed in the moment that the video ended by cutting off fractions from the longest version, thus creating videos with an early, mid, and late moment for the cyclist to decide to continue cycling or to slow down (Decision moment). Before the video experiment started the participants watched an introductory video about automated vehicles that served as prime. This video was either positive, negative, or neutral about automated vehicles (Prime type). Both Decision moment and Prime type were between subject variables. After the experiment participants completed a short questionnaire about trust in technology and trust in automated vehicles. 1009 participants divided in nine groups (one per Decision moment and Prime) completed the online experiment in which they watched fifteen videos (5 conflicts × 3 car types). The results show that participants more often yielded when the approaching car was an automated car than when it was a traditional car. However, when the approaching car was an automated car that could communicate its intentions, they yielded less often than for a traditional car. The earlier the Decision moment, the more often participants yielded but this increase in yielding did not differ between the three car types. Participants yielded more often for automated cars (both types) after they watched the negative prime video before the experiment than when they watched the positive video. The less participants trusted technology, and the capabilities of automated vehicles in particular, the more they were inclined to slow down in the conflict situations with automated cars. The association between trust and yielding was stronger for trust in the capabilities of automated vehicles than for trust in technology in general.     

The impact of auditory continual feedback on take-overs in Level 3 automated vehicles

ObjectiveTo implement auditory continual feedback into the interface design of a Level 3 automated vehicle and to test whether gaze behavior and reaction times of drivers improved in take-over situations.BackgroundWhen required to assume manual control in take-over situations, drivers of Level 3 automated vehicles are less likely than conventional drivers to spot potential hazards, and their reaction time is longer. Therefore, it is crucial that the interface of Level 3 automated vehicles will be designed to improve drivers’ performance in take-over situations.MethodIn two experiments, participants drove a simulated route in a Level 3 automated vehicle for 35 min with one imminent take-over event. Participants’ gaze behavior and performance in an imminent take-over event were monitored under one of three auditory interface designs: (1) Continual feedback. A system that provides verbal driving-related feedback; (2) Persistent feedback. A system that provides verbal driving-related feedback and a persistent beep; and (3) Chatter feedback. A system that provides verbal non-driving-related feedback. Also, there was a control group without feedback.ResultsUnder all three auditory feedback designs, the number of drivers' on-road glances increased compared to no feedback, but none of the designs shortened reaction time to the imminent event.ConclusionIncreasing the number of on-road glances during automated driving does not necessarily improve drivers’ attention to the road and their reaction times during take-overs.ApplicationPossible implications for the effectiveness of auditory continual feedback should be considered when designing interfaces for Level 3 automated vehicles.     

Safety of bicyclists in roundabouts with mixed traffic: Video analyses of behavioural and surrogate safety indicators

Although converting an intersection into a roundabout has been shown to result in fewer injury accidents for both motor vehicle drivers and pedestrians, the effect on bicyclists’ safety is unclear or even negative. This study focuses on roundabouts without bicycle facilities (i.e., mixed traffic conditions) and makes use of semi-automated video observation software with the aim of analysing bicyclists’ behaviour and safety on roundabouts with different diameter. Four urban roundabouts in Belgium are observed. Interactions between bicyclists and other vehicles are analysed using speed, lateral position and five indicators to describe the closeness of interactions (TTC_min, PET, T_{2 min}, lateral overtaking proximity and minimum distance headway). Additionally, the lateral position and riding speed of bicyclists that are in interaction with other vehicles is compared with the behaviour of bicyclists that are not in interaction with other vehicles.The behavioural analysis revealed that regardless of the type of condition (free-flow bicyclists or different interactions bicyclist-car), bicyclists always ride faster on roundabouts with big diameter and slower on roundabouts with small diameter. Moreover, bicyclists ride closer to the central island on roundabouts with big diameter compared to roundabouts with small diameter for all the conditions analysed.The analysis of surrogate safety indicators (TTC_min, PET, T_{2 min}) revealed that close interactions between bicyclists and cars are relatively frequent at both small and big roundabouts. The percentages of close interactions are more or less equal for roundabouts with big diameter (7.86% of observed interactions) and roundabouts with small diameter (8.24%). The analysis of the indicators to describe the closeness of interactions also showed that the closest interactions at roundabouts are all situations where the bicyclist has a leading role. The analysis of the most common types of close interactions revealed indeed that the most common close interactions are interactions where the bicyclist is entering the roundabout. The analysis of lateral overtaking proximity showed that bicyclists who overtake a car take smaller lateral overtaking proximities compared to cars overtaking a bicyclist. The analysis of minimum distance headway finally revealed that bicyclists who ride behind a car take smaller distance headways compared to cars driving behind a bicyclist.     

Role of Constant,Random and Blocked Practice in an Electromyography-Based Oral Motor Learning Task

Purpose: The role of principles of motor learning (PMLs) in speech has received much attention in the past decade. Oral motor learning, however, has not received similar consideration. This study evaluated the role of three practice conditions in an oral motor tracking task.

Method: Forty-five healthy adult participants were randomly and equally assigned to one of three practice conditions (constant, blocked, and random) and participated in an electromyography-based task. The study consisted of four sessions, at one session a day for four consecutive days. The first three days sessions included a practice phase, with immediate visual feedback, and an immediate retention phase, without visual feedback. The fourth session did not include practice, but only delayed retention testing, lasting 10–15 minutes, without visual feedback.

Results: Random group participants performed better than participants in constant and blocked practice conditions on all the four days. Constant group participants demonstrated superior learning over blocked group participants only on day 4.

Conclusion: Findings indicate that random practice facilitates oral motor learning, which is in line with limb/speech motor learning literature. Future research should systematically investigate the outcomes of random practice as a function of different oral and speech-based tasks.     

Learning the Relevance of Relevance and the Trouble with Truth: Evaluating Explanatory Relevance across Childhood

ABSTRACT

In four experiments, we investigate how the ability to detect irrelevant explanations develops. In Experiments 1 and 2, 4- to 8-year-olds and adults rated different types of explanations about “what makes cars go” individually, in the absence of a direct contrast. Each explanation was true and relevant (e.g., “Cars have engines that turn gasoline into power”), true and irrelevant (e.g., “Cars have radios that play music”), or a false statement that would be relevant if it were true (e.g., “Cars have rockets that speed them up”). Participants of all ages spontaneously indicated that false explanations were less helpful than relevant explanations. However, there was a developmental shift for irrelevant explanations: 4-year-olds only detected irrelevant explanations that did not involve internal features of cars (e.g., “Cars have parking lots that they park in”). Crucially, this shift between age 4 and 5 cannot be explained by 4-year-olds’ lack of knowledge since 4-year-olds correctly indicated that relevant explanations were more helpful than irrelevant feature explanations when given a direct contrast in Experiment 3. These results are further clarified in Experiment 4, in which we provided a different explanatory goal (“where to find cars”) and found that even young children have a nuanced understanding of explanatory relevance that is sensitive to differing explanatory goals. Together, these four experiments suggest an early-emerging ability to understand relevance, but a shift between age 4 and 5 in the ability to spontaneously use this understanding when evaluating individual explanations in isolation.     

Against the Tedium of Immortality

Abstract

In a well-known paper, Bernard Williams argues that an immortal life would not be worth living, for it would necessarily become boring. I examine the implications for the boredom thesis of three human traits that have received insufficient attention in the literature on Williams’ paper. First, human memory decays, so humans would be entertained and driven by things that they experienced long before but had forgotten. Second, even if memory does not decay to the extent necessary to ward off boredom, once-satisfied desires often return after a sufficient period of time. Eternity would always contain sufficient time for our desires to rejuvenate. Third, even if too many of our desires were satisfied but not yet rejuvenated, we can expect that human ingenuity would continue to invent new pursuits, pastimes, careers, and ways of life that would prevent us from becoming bored as we moved from one to another. Finally, I consider and respond to several objections, including the claims that as much variety as I propose to be put into an eternal life is inconsistent with having one character throughout one’s life and that the sort of character change and memory decay I postulate is inconsistent with personal identity.     

What drives tourists to adopt self-driving cars?

Autonomous vehicles are expected to shape mobility and tourism. This paper introduces an extension to the TAM to better understand the adoption of self-driving cars for tourism purposes. The new model (TAMAT) confirms some under-explored impacts of tourism-related variables, such as Openness to Tourism Usage and Unusual Surroundings, and the Adherence to Conventional Use on the Intention to Use self-driving cars. The research is based on online data collection (n = 646) and applies Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modelling. Findings indicate that the opportunity of using self-driving cars for tourism and unusual environments has a positive impact, while adherence to conventional car use has a negative impact on the intention to use self-driving cars.     

Surrogate safety indicator for unsignalised pedestrian crossings

ProblemAlthough the road safety situation in Poland is generally improving, the number of accidents at pedestrian crossings has not decreased in the last four years. This paper presents the results of the MOBIS research project, the aim of which was to develop surrogate safety indicators, based on detection of pedestrian-vehicle conflicts using video analysis.MethodPedestrian and vehicle traffic was filmed at two unsignalised pedestrian zebra crossings in Warsaw and Wrocław for over 40 days. Motion trajectories of vehicles and pedestrians were determined based on video processing. Several variables describing pedestrian-vehicle interactions were calculated, such as speed, post-encroachment time, distance between the participants, decelerations, etc. Classification of encounters was based on interactions of pedestrians and vehicles i.e. drivers yielding to pedestrians, vehicles passing just in front of, or behind pedestrians.Results and discussionCriteria for identification of dangerous encounters were selected with the assumption that it should be possible to automate the assessment process. The selected variables were: pedestrian-vehicle passing distance and the vehicle speed at that moment. Other criteria were used in cases of abrupt braking – deceleration exceeding 4 m/s² and vehicle speed. A Dangerous Encounter Index is proposed as a surrogate safety indicator for pedestrian crossings. It relates the occurrence of dangerous events to exposure, defined as the number of pedestrian-vehicle encounters.Practical applicationsThe proposed index shows that crossing two lanes involves more risk than crossing one lane, given similar traffic flow. Some improvement of safety at both types of crossing was observed after active signage involving blinking lights had been introduced. The proposed method is a step towards automation of safety assessment.     

How highlighted utensils influence consumption in a dark setting

Abstract

Objective: Previous research has shown that people consume less food in the dark compared to normal vision conditions. While this effect is commonly attributed to increased attention to internal cues, it could also be caused by increased difficulty to maneuver in a dark setting. This study investigated this potential alternative explanation.

Design: A 2 (dark versus normal vision setting)?×?2 (highlighted versus non-highlighted utensils) between-subjects design was employed.

Main outcome measures: Perceived difficulty of maneuvering and consumption of yoghurt were assessed as main outcome measures.

Results: Participants consumed marginally less in dark compared to normal vision conditions, and experienced higher difficulty of maneuvering. Importantly, both effects were qualified by a significant interaction with highlighting, which increased consumption and reduced perceived difficulty compared to no highlights. Difficulty of maneuvering did not mediate the interactive effect of vision and highlighting on consumption.

Conclusion: Difficulty to maneuver should be considered when investigating eating behaviour under dark conditions. In line with an embodied cognition account, results also reveal the necessity of visual information for interaction with objects in the environment and imply that detail-deprived object information may be sufficient for activation of the motor system.     

Individually constructed criteria for perception of urban transportation means – An approach based on Kelly’s personal construct theory

Understanding of acceptance of electric mobility has been typically discussed by a comparison of vehicles with different types of propulsion engines, battery electric vehicles and vehicles with an internal combustion engine. Nevertheless, electric mobility comprehends a combination of public transport and electric vehicles. The aim of this paper is to understand peoples’ outlook on electric mobility by identifying shared aspects of the assessment of battery electric vehicles and different user perspectives on transportation. A special research design in the form of repertory grids provides an opportunity to study the underlying causes of the cognitive perceptions and emotions relating to electric mobility. Cognitive interviews motivate respondents to reflect beyond the insights provided by standard forms of interview. Especially for the topic of battery electric vehicles, prejudices - for instance, those propagated by the media - are discarded and the actual requirements and patterns of mobility become visible. The special tasks involved in the interviews lead, for example, to deliberation on how to integrate battery charging processes into existing mobility patterns.This special method reveals that individuals take an interest in more characteristics of modes of transport than those that are usually analysed when researching electric mobility. In addition, three anticipation clusters can be identified for individuals with a higher affinity for cars. First, the perception of battery electric vehicles shows high levels of similarity to cars with internal combustion engines and that differentiating between types of engines is meaningless. Second, battery electric vehicles are perceived as a part of urban public transport. Third, battery electric vehicles are viewed as similar to pedelecs and segways, whereas questions of range, innovation and environmental aspects play a greater role in perceptions. These results lead to the conclusion that when studying the acceptance of BEVs, a comparison between cars with internal combustion engines and battery electric vehicles is not sufficient to grasp the complete user perspective. An analysis within the framework of a wider range of modes of transport is required in order to address people’s transportation needs.     

Self-controlled practice: Autonomy protects perceptions of competence and enhances motor learning

ObjectiveIn previous self-controlled feedback studies, it was observed that participants who could control their own feedback schedules usually use a strategy of choosing feedback after successful trials, and present superior motor learning when compared with participants who were not allowed to choose. Yoked participants of these studies, however, were thwarted not only regarding autonomy but also, presumably, regarding perceived competence, as their feedback schedules were provided randomly, regarding good or bad trials. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-controlled feedback schedules would have differential effects on learning if yoked participants are provided with feedback after good trials at the same rate as their self-controlled counterparts.DesignExperimental study with two groups. Timing accuracy was assessed in two different experimental phases, supplemented by questionnaire data.MethodParticipants practiced a coincident-anticipation timing task with a self-controlled or yoked feedback schedule during practice. Participants of the self-controlled group were able to ask for feedback for two trials, after each of five 6-trial practice blocks. Yoked participants received a feedback schedule matching the self-control group schedule, according to accuracy.ResultsParticipants asked for (self-controlled group) and received (yoked group) feedback, mainly after relatively good trials. However, participants of the self-controlled group reported greater self-efficacy at the end of practice, and performed with greater accuracy one day later, on the retention test, than the yoked group.ConclusionsThe findings indicate that the autonomy provided by self-controlled feedback protocols can raise learners' perceptions of competence, with positive consequences on motor learning.     

Stability of M-ABC-2-measured motor functioning in early childhood: Evidence from a large prospective cohort

AimSome studies have reported that children with poor motor functioning tend to improve over time. However, much existing research does not account for regression towards the mean (RTM). Here, we examine measurement stability among 589 children aged 4–5 years.MethodWe administered the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition annually to 269 children initially scoring above and 252 at or below the 16th percentile. We measured agreement between year 1 and year 2 standard scores using Pearson correlation and derived expected regression towards the mean (RTM). We then regressed follow-up on baseline scores, controlling for relative age, sex, and exact interval between assessments. Finally, we performed a small illustrative simulation.Outcomes and resultsThe mean score in the poor-coordination group rose from 5.6 (SD = 1.5) to 7.2 (SD = 2.8). Year 1 and year 2 scores were correlated at r = 0.66, corresponding to predicted RTM in the MI group of 1.56, close to the observed change of 1.57. Degree of change was not associated with time between assessments.InterpretationObserved improvements in motor functioning were consistent with measurement error. The stability of motor functioning may be greater than it appears from past research, and reported functional improvements in some studies may be illusory.What this paper adds?

• -Impaired motor coordination is common and can meaningfully affect functioning.
• -Our analysis suggests that coordination is generally stable.
• -Apparent improvement in research may often be produced by measurement error.

     

What’s wrong with human extinction?

Abstract

This paper explores what could be wrong with the fact of human extinction. I first present four reasons why we might consider human extinction to be wrong: (1) it would prevent millions of people from being born; (2) it would mean the loss of rational life and civilization; (3) it would cause existing people to suffer pain or death; (4) it would involve various psychological traumas. I argue that looking at the question from a contractualist perspective, only reasons (3) and (4) are admissible. I then consider what implications this limitation on reasons has for the wrongfulness of various forms of human extinction.     

Correlates of Team Success in Higher Education

Summary

An attitude questionnaire was filled out by 75 undergraduates who subsequently evaluated a hypothetical male convict's responses to the same survey—the convict's attitudes being either 10% or 90% similar to each S's own views. Ss then made judgments of the convict's emotional maturity, sense of personal responsibility, and control of violent impulses, as well as how much they would like him as a person and how willing they would be to recommend him for parole. The results indicated that attitudinal similarity to the convict was associated with significantly more positive evaluations of him on each of the five response measures. It was suggested that attitudinal similarity to a convict could be a biasing factor in judgments of whether or not the convict should be paroled.     

Effects of test anxiety on motor learning: The processing efficiency hypothesis

Abstract

The hypothesis that, under test (stress) conditions, high trait-anxious individuals invest extra processing resources to reach motor learning levels similar to those of low-anxious individuals was investigated. A transfer procedure (practice trial, rest interval, and transfer trial) was employed to analyse motor learning effects. In Experiment 1, a secondary task (click detection) was used to measure the extra processing resources expenditure on motor learning during the practice trial. Neither motor performance in the transfer trial nor secondary task performance differed as a function of test condition or anxiety trait. A critical analysis of the secondary task paradigm suggested that it was not sensitive enough to reflect the amount of processing capacity expended on the primary motor tasks. In Experiment 2, subjects performed a loading task (verbal shadowing of sentences) concurrently with the motor tasks during the practice trial to prevent extra resources from being allocated to motor learning. Results showed that anxiety trait was associated to performance time increments on the high-demanding motor tasks in the transfer trial. A plausible explanation is that anxiety impairs learning because it reduces the efficiency of processing. An alternative interpretation, concerning an ability deficit of high trait-anxious individuals, is discussed.     

Dealing with Possible Baseline Inequalities Between Experimental Groups – The Case of Motor Learning

Abstract

One important concept of experimental design is the random assignment of participants to experimental groups. This randomization process is used to prevent selection bias, as well as to provide a strong basis for a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent variable/s and the dependent variable/s. In small sample sizes, simple randomization may not provide equal groups at baseline for one or more of the variables, and therefore more restricted types of randomization, such as the stratified permuted-block randomization, can be used. A code was written to calculate the probability that simple randomization will not lead to equality between groups at baseline, and then an example of stratified permuted-block randomization was examined. The findings suggest that for certain variables that are commonly measured in experiments in motor learning, there is a relatively high probability that groups will not be equal at baseline after simple randomization. This observation reflects the small sample sizes usually found in the literature on motor learning. However, stratified permuted-block randomization does lead to greater equality among groups. Implications for researchers are discussed, and a flowchart is proposed that will allow researchers to decide whether to use simple or stratified randomization.     

Pain and athletes: Contact sport participation and performance in pain

ObjectivesThis study examined the effect of cold pressor pain on performance in high-contact athletes, low-contact athletes and non-athletes.DesignA three-group between-subjects experimental design was used.MethodSeventy-one participants completed a motor task and a cognitive task of different complexity (easy or hard) both in pain and not in pain. The motor task involved participants throwing a tennis ball at numbered targets in the correct order. In the cognitive task, participants were required to check off the numbers one to twenty-five in the correct order from a grid of randomly ordered numbers. Task difficulty was increased by adding dummy targets (motor task) or extra numbers (cognitive task).ResultsCold pressor pain was rated as less intense by high-contact athletes during both tasks compared to low-contact athletes and non-athletes. High-contact athletes’ performance was not hampered by pain on the motor task, whereas it was in low-contact athletes and non-athletes. However, pain did not hamper performance for any group during the cognitive task. Low-contact and non-athletes did not differ from each other in their pain reports or the degree to which their performance was hampered by pain in either task.ConclusionsThis study provides evidence that adaptation to pain through participation in high-contact sports can enhance both pain tolerance generally and motor performance specifically under increases in pain. The mechanisms behind these differences warrant further exploration.     

Dimensions of movement specific reinvestment in practice of a golf putting task

ObjectivesThis study aimed to investigate the role of the two dimensions of movement specific reinvestment (conscious motor processing and movement self-consciousness) in performance of a complex task early and later in practice. Furthermore, the study also examined the underlying kinematic mechanisms by which conscious motor processing and movement self-consciousness influence performance in practice.MethodsTrait measures of conscious motor processing and movement self-consciousness were obtained from participants using the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale. Participants (n = 30) with no prior golf putting experience practiced 300 golf putts over the course of two days. Putting proficiency (number of putts holed) and variability of movement kinematics (SD impact velocity and SD putter face angle at impact) were assessed early and later in practice.ResultsMovement self-consciousness positively influenced putting proficiency early and later in practice by reducing variability of impact velocity and putter face angle at impact. Conscious motor processing positively influenced putting proficiency early in practice by reducing variability of impact velocity and putter face angle at impact. Later in practice, conscious motor processing was not associated with putting proficiency.ConclusionThe findings suggest that higher propensity for movement self-consciousness potentially influences performance early and later in practice by reducing variability of impact velocity and putter face angle at impact. A higher propensity for conscious motor processing benefits performance in a similar manner as movement self-consciousness early in practice but it does not seem to influence performance later in practice. The findings of the current study suggest that movement self-consciousness and conscious motor processing differentially influence performance at different stages in practice of a complex motor skill, suggesting that they might depict different types of conscious processing.