The adequacy of the theories of deductive systems with respect to sentential calculi

Summary The sentential calculiR, under discussion, are axiomatizable and implication is among their primitive terms. The modus ponens and the rule of substitution are their primitive rules. ByS _r is denoted the set of sentences obtained from the formulae of the calculusR by substituting sentences of a given language for all variables. The variablesx, y, z ... represent the elements of the setS _r , the variablesX, Y, Z ... represent the subsets ofS _R . The formulacxy designates an implication withx as its antecedent andy as its consequent,cxy is always an element ofS _R δ(X) means, thatX is closed with respect to the modus ponens rule.A _R designates the class of allS _R -substitutions of the axioms of the sentential calculusR.     

One Aspect of Hartmann's Review of Human Nature and Enduring Peace

Summary

Eighty Negro boys and girls, ages 3 to 5, were assigned to one of eight conditions. Race of model (Negro vs. white), type of consequence to model (reward vs. punishment), and percent of rewarded or punished responses (20 vs. 80 percent) were varied. The Ss viewed a television tape of a model (M) performing a simple two-choice discrimination task with either verbal reward or verbal punishment administered. After watching M make his choice, the S then made his own choice. When S's choice was the same as M's, imitative behavior was said to have occurred. There were significant effects of both race of M and type of consequence to M. Negro S imitated the white M more than the Negro M and imitated the rewarded M more than the punished M. The punished white M was imitated at approximately the same level as the rewarded Negro M. No significant effects of percent of reinforcement were found. Possible explanations of the experimental results were discussed.     

On the maximum number of folds of a piece of paper

We argue that a piece of paper, of thickness T and width W, can be folded a maximum number N?=?0.962 ln(f W/T) times, where f is a factor of order unity, determined by mechanical constraints. N typically takes a value of around six.     

The relation of multiserial eta to other measures of correlation

Ordinary product-moment correlation and regression methods are frequently not immediately applicable to qualitative data, whereas multiserialr, point-multiserialr, and multiserial eta can be easily applied. The multiserialr is rejected for prediction since it tells us only what the correlationmight be if certain assumptionswere true and if wecould measure what isnot now measured. The point-multiserialr and multiserial eta are identical when the number of categories is two but differ when it is three or greater. The multiserial eta is identical with the product-momentr when categories are assigned scale values equal to their means on the continuous variable. With three or more categories, the point-multiserialr, whichassumes linearity withequal step intervals, is always lower than the multiserial eta, whichforces linearity by adoption ofunequal step intervals based upon difference in criterion attainment. While the multiserial eta expends one degree of freedom with the weighting of each category, this is known and correctable, whereas the vague partial loss of degrees of freedom due to the ordering of categories in the point-multiserial is not correctable.Personnel Research Section, A.G.O.     

Making the Quantum of Relevance

Summary  The two Heisenberg Uncertainties (UR) entail an incompatibility between the two pairs of conjugated variables E, t and p, q. But incompatibility comes in two kinds, exclusive of one another. There is incompatibility defineable as: (p → − q) & (q→ − p) or defineable as [(p →− q) & (q →− p)] ↔ r. The former kind is unconditional, the latter conditional. The former, in accordance, is fact independent, and thus a matter of logic, the latter fact dependent, and thus a matter of fact. The two types are therefore diametrically opposed.In spite of this, however, the existing derivations of the Uncertainties are shown here to entail both types of incompatibility simultaneously. Δ E Δ t ≥ h is known to derive from the quantum relation E = hν plus the Fourier relation Δ ν Δ t ≥ 1. And the Fourier relation assigns a logical incompatibility between Δ ν = 0, Δ t = 0. (Defining a repetitive phenomenon at an instant t → 0 is a self contradictory notion.) An incompatibility, therefore, which is fact independent and unconditional. How can one reconcile this with the fact that Δ EΔ t exists if and only if h > 0, which latter supposition is a factual truth, entailing that a Δ E = 0, Δ t = 0 incompatibility should itself be fact dependent? Are we to say that E and t are unconditionally incompatible (via Δ ν Δ t ≥ 1) on condition that E = hν is at all true? Hence, as presently standing, the UR express a self-contradicting type of incompatibility.To circumvent this undesirable result, I reinterpret E = hν as relating the energy with a period. Though only one such period. And not with frequency literally. (It is false that E = ν . It is true that E = ν times the quantum.) In this way, the literal concept of frequency does not enter as before, rendering Δ ν Δ t ≥ 1 inapplicable. So the above noted contradiction disappears. Nevertheless, the Uncertainties are derived. If energy is only to be defined over a period, momentum only over a distance (formerly a wavelength) resulting during such period, thus yielding quantized action of dimensions Et = pq, then energies will become indefinite at instants, momenta indefinite at points, leading, as demanded, to (symmetric!) Δ E Δ t = Δ p Δ q ≥ h’s.     

The occurrence of an increase in correlation by restriction of range

Given three variables,x, y, z, univariate selection onx, usually reduces the correlationr _{y z} . However, in some cases, whenr _{x y} orr _{x z} assumes extreme values,r _{y z} may increase. This reversal is explained by comparison to the effects of suppressor variables and predictors of predictability.     

The requirements of truth and of justification of premisses

Summary The article attempts to give an answer to the question: why for the acceptance of a statementz ₂ implied by another,z ₁, it is required not only thatz ₁ be true but also justified? The application in a given case of the rule allowing to accept a statement implied by another true one is not possible without establishing in an appropriate manner that the statement is true. Practically, therefore, we have to rely in the conditions for the acceptance of a statementz ₂ implied by anotherz ₁ on the manner of acceptance ofz ₁. If we require that this manner of acceptance should guarantee the truth ofz ₁, no special requirement of the truth ofz ₁ is necessary. If the acceptance ofz ₂ implied byz ₁ depends onz ₁ being accepted in a manner which does not ensure the truth ofz ₁ (e. g. by induction), then we have to give up the requirement of the truth ofz ₁. At most, we may prohibit the acceptance ofz ₂ implied byz ₁, inductively justified, if the evidence for the negation ofz ₁ is better than the inductive one forz ₁.     

Patterns of Tao (Dao): The Birth of Chinese Writing and Aesthetics

In the Chinese tradition, the relationship between art and philosophy is conceptually explored in terms of the relationship between dao (Tao) and wen, which may respectively be viewed as representing philosophy and art. Over history, discourses on dao 道 and wen 文 are central to studies of Chinese literature, art, culture, and civilization. But just as dao holds a range of ideas in Chinese philosophy, wen is also one of the most complex terms in Chinese tradition, whose denotations and connotations are multifaceted and open to interpretations. This article argues that the elusive nature of wen can be understood adequately from the perspective of language philosophy and aesthetics via its relationship to the metaphysical principle of the Dao. By examining the discourses on wen and dao, this article advances a thesis with three interrelated ideas: (1) wen (writing) as manifestations of the Tao is an instance of “humanized nature”; (2) the birth of wen marked the beginning of reflections on literature and art, hence inaugurating aesthetics in the Chinese tradition; and (3) the early discourses on wen have determined the distinctiveness of Chinese aesthetic consciousness.     

Split identity: intransitive judgments of the identity of objects

Identity is a transitive relation, according to all standard accounts. Necessarily, if x = y and y = z, then x = z. However, people sometimes say that two objects, x and z, are the same as a third, y, even when x and z have different properties (thus, x = y and y = z, but x ≠ z). In the present experiments, participants read stories about an iceberg that breaks into two icebergs, one to the east and the other to the west. Many participants (32–54%, in baseline conditions across experiments) decided that both successors were the original iceberg, despite the different spatial locations of the successors. Experiment 1 shows that this tendency is not due to participants failing to understand both to mean both are simultaneously the original. Similarly, Experiment 2 demonstrates that the tendency is not solely due to their interpreting the question to be about properties of the icebergs rather than about the icebergs themselves. Experiments 3 and 4 suggest, instead, that participants may understand Which is the original? to mean Which, in its own right, is entitled to be the original? Emphasizing entitlement increases the number of seemingly intransitive responses, whereas emphasizing the formal properties of identity decreases them.     

Maximum likelihood estimation of the joint covariance matrix for sections of tests given to distinct samples with application to test equating

Consider an old testX consisting ofs sections and two new testsY andZ similar toX consisting ofp andq sections respectively. All subjects are given testX plus two variable sections from either testY orZ. Different pairings of variable sections are given to each subsample of subjects. We present a method of estimating the covariance matrix of the combined test (X ₁, ...,X _s ,Y ₁, ...,Y _p ,Z ₁, ...,Z _q ) and describe an application of these estimation techniques to linear, observed-score, test equating.The author is indebted to Paul W. Holland and Donald B. Rubin for their encouragement and many helpful comments and suggestions that contributed significantly to the development of this paper.This research was supported by the Program Statistics Research Project of the ETS Research Statistics Group.     

The Point of Scientificity,the Fall of the Epistemological Dominos,and the End of the Field of Educational Administration

The point of scientificity, or pos,represents a place in history whereeducational administration was founded as ascience. A pos creates a field of memoryand a field of studies. A pos isepistemologically sustained in its claim forscientific status by a line of demarcation orlod. A lod is supported by truthclaims based on various forms ofcorrespondence. As these forms have beeninterrogated and abandoned, correspondence hasgiven way to coherentism and finally to testsof falsification. As falsification has shownto contain serious flaws when compared to theactual history of scientific discoveries, theentire project of a distinct and unitaryfield known as educational administration isseriously cast into doubt. Contemporaryexaminations in educational administrationdiscourse show that even when the lod hasbeen undermined by epistemological shifts, theinitial pos has remained to supportclaims regarding the project of a ``science ofleadership.' The analysis contained in thisarticle show, however, that when claims of thelod are demonstrably unsustainable, theinitial pos must be similarly abandoned. With that collapse the concept of a fieldis likewise effaced. The epistemologicalalternative is to envision fields ofstudy which do not require a lod, excepton a longitudinal basis to ascertain whether aresearch program shaped and sustained by it isprogressive or regressive. In short, there areno aprori meta-criteria to separate sciencefrom non-science in educationaladministration.     

A Five‐dimensional Model of Attributes: Some precursors of executive coach selection

The purpose of this study was to specify a set of attributes, identified as important precursors to coach selection. Executive coaching has grown exponentially, but there have been few studies as to the efficacy of coaching, including the factors that influence a manager's choice of coach. This study sought to identify these factors. The 45‐item, online survey produced 267 useable responses. Results of the principal component analysis suggested a five‐factor solution, with women showing a statistically significant preference over men for coaches who have the Ability to Develop Critical Thinking and Action, the Ability to Forge the Coaching Partnership and Coach Experience and Qualifications. The impact of coachee age was not significant in selecting executive coaches. The findings show a statistically significant relationship between coach attributes and the intention to continue with coaching. The implications of these findings for the selection of coaches, and for the coaching profession are discussed.     

Minor Studies of Aggression: V. Strength of Frustration-Reaction as a Function of Strength of Drive

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of two methods of presenting visualized instruction to Ss and to determine the effectiveness of different types of visuals in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives. Five hundred twenty Ss participated in the study; each received a pretest, participated in his respective instructional presentation, and received four criterial tests. Analysis indicated that (a) the method of presenting visualized instruction determines the type of visualization most effective in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives; (b) for facilitating S achievement of certain objectives, color in visuals is an important instructional variable; and (c) not all visuals are equally effective in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives.     

A Study of the Questions of Young Children Concerning Sex: A Phase of an Experimental Approach to Parent Education

Summary

Ninety-six male and female Ss were exposed to a Spanish E speaking Spanish, a Spanish E speaking English, or an Anglo E speaking English, who requested change for a dime. Sex and clothing (well dressed or sloppy) of E were also varied, creating a 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 design. Both helpfulness and language of S served as dependent measures. Spanish Es speaking Spanish were helped the most, and Anglo Es helped the least. Es were helped more when well dressed than when sloppily dressed. A strong modeling effect for language was found—viz., Ss were likely to respond in the language in which they were addressed; however the altruism and language of Ss were not related.     

The logic of ability,freedom and responsibility

The aim of this paper is to offer a rigorous explication of statements ascribing ability to agents and to develop the logic of such statements. A world is said to be feasible iff it is compatible with the actual past-and-present. W is a P-world iff W is feasible and P is true in W (where P is a proposition). P is a sufficient condition for Q iff every P world is a Q world. P is a necessary condition for Q iff Q is a sufficient condition forP. Each individual property S is shown to generate a rule for an agent X. X heeds S iff X makes all his future choices in accordance with S. (Note that X may heed S and yet fail to have it). S is a P-strategy for X iff X's heeding S together with P is a necessary and sufficient condition for X to have S. (P-strategies are thus rules which X is able to implement on the proviso P).Provisional opportunity: X has the opportunity to A provided P iff there is an S such that S is a P-strategy for X and X's implementing S is a sufficient condition for X's doing A. P is etiologically complete iff for every event E which P reports P also reports an etiological ancestry of E, and P is true. Categorical opportunity: X has the opportunity to A iff there is a P such that P is etiologically complete and X has the opportunity to A provided P. For X to have the ability to A there must not only be an appropriate strategy, but X must have a command of that strategy. X steadfastly intends A iff X intends A at every future moment at which his doing A is not yet inevitable. X has a command of S w.r.t. A and P iff X's steadfastly intending A together with P is a sufficient condition for X to implement S. Provisional ability: X can A provided P iff there is an S such that S is a P-strategy for X, X's implementing S is a sufficient condition for X's doing A, and X has a command of S w.r.t. A and P. Categorical ability: X can A iff there is a P such that P is etiologically complete and X can A provided P. X is free w.r.t. to A iff X can A and X can non- A. X is free iff there is an A such that X is free w.r.t. A.     

Differential Method of Characterizing Gait Strategies From Step Lengths and Frequencies: Strategy of Velocity Modulation

The differential method consists of the analysis of the variation of gait parameters length, frequency, and velocity with respect to their mean values, respectively, ΔL = L — L_m , Δf = f — f_m , and Δv = v – v_m , where L_m , f_m , and v_m represent the mean values of those parameters. Assuming that the strategy of modulation of velocity implies that L and f are functions of v and that statistical analyses of ratios ΔL/Δv and Δf/Δv have established that there is a very significant linear correlation, close to 1, between those ratios, the mathematical procedure allows one to determine the equation of step length, L = a · f + b · v + K, where a and b are the slope and the intercept of the linear regression and K is close to L_m . The equation was experimentally tested on 140 gait sequences performed by 6 participants and for gait velocities ranging from 0.6 to 2.2 m/s and was found to be very representative of all individual values. The differential method provides another way of using the derivative of velocity, v = L·f, to characterize the strategy of velocity modulation, which then permits one to determine the linear equation of velocity, v = f · L_m + L · f_m — L_m · f_m , and to show that the respective parts played by each parameter in the progression velocity are approximately equal. The author establishes the uniqueness of the different linear adjustments and discusses the differential method's own modes of use, that is, interindividually or globally.     

Development and Evaluation of a Decision Aid About Prenatal Testing for Women of Advanced Maternal Age

Objective: To develop and evaluate a decision aid designed to prepare patients of advanced maternal age for counseling about prenatal diagnostic testing. Setting: A regional genetics center. Design: A before/after study. Interventions: Participants used an audioguided workbook to learn about options and outcomes and to clarify personal risks, values, questions, and predispositions. Subjects: 21 women of advanced maternal age and 17 spouses. Main outcome measures: Knowledge of prenatal testing alternatives, decisional conflict, level of anxiety, and acceptability of the decision aid. Results: After using the decision aid, participants had significantly reduced decisional conflict (uncertainty) and a significant increase in knowledge. There was no effect on state or trait anxiety. More than three-quarters of participants were satisfied with the length, clarity, balance, and acceptability of the decision aid. Conclusions: The decision aid shows promise as a useful aid for preparing couples for counseling.     

Self‐ and cross‐citations in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis and the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior: 2004‐2018

We examined self‐ and cross‐citations in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) and the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) from 2004 through 2018. Mean annual levels of self‐citations for JABA and JEAB were 40.1% and 28.7%, respectively. Overall, 5.1% of JABA citations were JEAB articles, and 2.3% of JEAB citations were JABA articles. Although overall cross‐citation levels were relatively low, 28.7% of the JABA articles reviewed had at least one JEAB citation, and 27.5% of the JEAB articles reviewed had at least one JABA citation. Authors in both journals cited articles addressing the topics of matching and motivating operations. The extent to which the basic and applied sectors of behavior analysis interact depends on how the interaction is measured. Nonetheless, the degree of interaction is growing, which is a good thing for the discipline.     

Semantic Information and the Correctness Theory of Truth

Semantic information is usually supposed to satisfy the veridicality thesis: p qualifies as semantic information only if p is true. However, what it means for semantic information to be true is often left implicit, with correspondentist interpretations representing the most popular, default option. The article develops an alternative approach, namely a correctness theory of truth (CTT) for semantic information. This is meant as a contribution not only to the philosophy of information but also to the philosophical debate on the nature of truth. After the introduction, in Sect. 2, semantic information is shown to be translatable into propositional semantic information (i). In Sect. 3, i is polarised into a query (Q) and a result (R), qualified by a specific context, a level of abstraction and a purpose. This polarization is normalised in Sect. 4, where [Q + R] is transformed into a Boolean question and its relative yes/no answer [Q + A]. This completes the reduction of the truth of i to the correctness of A. In Sects. 5 and 6, it is argued that (1) A is the correct answer to Q if and only if (2) A correctly saturates Q by verifying and validating it (in the computer science’s sense of “verification” and “validation”); that (2) is the case if and only if (3) [Q + A] generates an adequate model (m) of the relevant system (s) identified by Q; that (3) is the case if and only if (4) m is a proxy of s (in the computer science’s sense of “proxy”) and (5) proximal access to m commutes with the distal access to s (in the category theory’s sense of “commutation”); and that (5) is the case if and only if (6) reading/writing (accessing, in the computer science’s technical sense of the term) m enables one to read/write (access) s. Sect. 7 provides some further clarifications about CTT, in the light of semantic paradoxes. Section 8 draws a general conclusion about the nature of CTT as a theory for systems designers not just systems users. In the course of the article all technical expressions from computer science are explained.