Differences between follower and dyadic measures of LMX as mediators of emotional intelligence and employee performance,well-being,and turnover intention

Both leader and follower emotional intelligence (EI) have been posited in the literature to influence leader–member exchange (LMX). We collected data from 203 independent leader–follower dyads working in the insurance industry in Malaysia and examined relationships between leader and follower trait-EI and follower outcomes mediated through LMX. We added a further dimension to our study by comparing results using follower and then a dyadic measure of LMX. We found that leader EI predicted a dyadic measure of LMX, whilst only follower EI predicted a follower measure of LMX. As hypothesized, leader EI had both direct and indirect effects on follower job performance. By contrast, follower EI demonstrated both direct and indirect effects on follower well-being. We found a dyadic measure of LMX to be a stronger predictor of follower job performance, well-being, and turnover intention than a follower only measure. Our results suggest that significant relationships between leader and follower trait EI and LMX depend on whether follower or dyadic measures of LMX are used. The study draws attention to the importance of emphasizing the level at which EI effects are expected to operate in LMX.     

服务型领导对员工建言行为的影响:领导-成员交换和学习目标取向的作用

通过对191名员工及其领导的配对问卷调查,探讨了服务型领导对员工建言行为的作用机制。结果发现:(1)服务型领导对员工建言行为有积极影响;(2)服务型领导通过领导-成员交换的中介效应影响员工建言行为;(3)员工的学习目标取向对领导-成员交换与建言行为之间的关系具有调节效应,即员工的学习目标取向越强,领导-成员交换对建言行为的影响越大;(4)学习目标取向调节了领导-成员交换对服务型领导-建言行为的中介作用。     

恩威并施，以德服人——家长式领导研究述评

家长式领导是基于中国传统文化而有别于西方领导理论的本土领导理论,广泛存在于各种类型的华人组织中,是中华文化下组织的普遍特征。家长式领导包含仁慈领导,权威领导,德行领导3个维度。该文回顾了家长式领导研究的发展历程,分析了家长式领导的文化基础,介绍了家长式领导三元理论及其测量工具PLS,并指出家长式领导对领导效能有不可忽视的解释力。最后,根据已有的研究,提出了家长式领导研究未来的研究方向,比如对具体行业中家长式领导领导效能的探讨,以及家长式领导三维度之间关系的探讨等     

The curvilinear effect of benevolent leadership on team performance: The mediating role of team action processes and the moderating role of team commitment

Leaders are encouraged to show benevolence to followers in paternalistic cultures. Yet, there remains debate about whether the influence of increasingly benevolent leadership on follower outcomes is linearly favorable. Grounded in the too‐much‐of‐a‐good‐thing effect and resource allocation theory, we developed and tested a model considering a potential curvilinear relationship between benevolent leadership and team performance while also examining the mediating role of team action processes. We further reasoned that this curvilinear indirect effect would be moderated by team commitment, which could neutralize the diminishing performance returns resulting from excessive benevolent leadership. To test these ideas, we carried out two studies. In the first study, multisource and time‐lagged data collected from 381 employees working in 104 research and development teams showed that benevolent leadership exhibited an inverted U‐shaped relationship with team performance, but this curvilinear relationship disappeared in teams with high team commitment. In the second study, we replicated and extended our results using a sample of 417 employees from 101 hotel management teams of a large hotel chain. Specifically, we found an inverted U‐shaped relationship between benevolent leadership and team action processes, which mediated the inverted U‐shaped relationship between benevolent leadership and team performance. Moreover, this indirect curvilinear effect only held in teams with low team commitment. We discuss the implications of our findings for both theory and practice.     

From self‐defeating to other defeating: Examining the effects of leader procrastination on follower work outcomes

This research examines the influence of leader procrastination on employee attitudes and behaviours. While previous studies have typically viewed procrastination as a form of self‐defeating behaviour, this research explores its effects on others in the workplace. In Study 1, using data collected from 290 employees, we demonstrate the discriminant and relative predictive validity of leader procrastination on leadership effectiveness compared with laissez‐faire leadership and directive leadership. In Study 2, based on dyadic data collected in three phases from 250 employees and their 23 supervisors, we found that leader procrastination was associated with follower discretionary behaviour (organizational citizenship behaviour and deviant behaviour). Additionally, job frustration was found to mediate the relationship between leader procrastination and follower outcomes. The quality of the leader–follower relationship, as a boundary condition, was shown to mitigate the detrimental effects of leader procrastination. Together, the findings suggest that leader procrastination is a distinct form of negative leadership behaviour that represents an important source of follower job frustration.

Practitioner points

• Leader procrastination is different from laissez‐faire and directive leadership and can be detrimental to followers.
• Job frustration mediates the relationship between leader procrastination and follower discretionary behaviour.
• Organizations should facilitate high‐quality LMX relationships as a method for mitigating the negative effects of leader procrastination.

     

家长式领导与员工建言行为：组织认同的中介作用

为探讨家长式领导对员工建言行为的影响,并考察组织认同在其中的作用机制,采用家长式领导、组织认同、建言行为三个量表对316名员工进行测量,层次回归分析和Bootstrap检验的结果表明：（1）家长式领导的三个维度均对建言行为有显著正向预测作用;（2）组织认同对抑制性建言和促进性建言均有显著正向预测作用;（3）组织认同分别在仁慈领导、德行领导与建言行为之间起部分中介作用。     

Deadly combinations: how leadership contexts undermine the activation and enactment of followers’ high core self-evaluations in performance

Employees with high core self-evaluations (CSE) generally perform well in their jobs. The enactment of CSE in performance occurs within contexts, and leadership is one form of context that influences the activation and expression of CSE. Drawing on theories of CSE and leader–member exchange (LMX), we characterized the leadership context as the interaction between leader CSE and LMX quality. Examination of 173 followers and their 31 leaders in a manufacturing organization showed a positive association between follower CSE and performance when the context comprised high leader CSE and high LMX. Conversely, leadership contexts comprising high leader CSE and low LMX, or low leader CSE and high LMX, resulted in a negative relationship between follower CSE and performance. We also show that low CSE followers have relatively high performance under some circumstances. Thus, we contribute to understanding how some leadership contexts undermine high CSE followers’ performance and promote low CSE followers’ performance.     

Heroic or hubristic? A componential approach to the relationship between perceived transformational leadership and leader–member exchanges

Using an interpersonal approach to self-perceptions, we broke down leaders’ self-perceptions of their transformational leadership behaviour into three components: a target effect (i.e., how leaders are perceived by followers), a perceiver effect (i.e., how leaders perceive followers), and a self-enhancement effect (i.e., idiosyncratic positivity bias in how leaders perceive themselves), and then examined the relationships between these components and the quality of exchanges between leaders and followers (LMX). In a survey study among 60 leaders with 286 followers, we found the target effect in leaders’ self-perceptions of their transformational leadership to be positively related to the quality of LMX, whereas the perceiver effect and self-enhancement effects were negatively associated with LMX. Follower extraversion intensified the positive role of the target effect and the negative role of the self-enhancement effect in the leader–follower exchanges.     

Establishing the next generation at work: leader generativity as a moderator of the relationships between leader age, leader-member exchange, and leadership success

In this study, the authors investigated leader generativity as a moderator of the relationships between leader age, leader-member exchange, and three criteria of leadership success (follower perceptions of leader effectiveness, follower satisfaction with leader, and follower extra effort). Data came from 128 university professors paired with one research assistant each. Results showed positive relationships between leader age and leader generativity, and negative relationships between leader age and follower perceptions of leader effectiveness and follower extra effort. Consistent with expectations based on leadership categorization theory, leader generativity moderated the relationships between leader age and all three criteria of leadership success, such that leaders high in generativity were better able to maintain high levels of leadership success at higher ages than leaders low in generativity. Finally, results of mediated moderation analyses showed that leader-member exchange quality mediated these moderating effects. The findings suggest that, in combination, leader age and the age-related construct of generativity importantly influence leadership processes and outcomes.     

Leader-Member Exchange and Transformational Leadership: An Empirical Examination of Innovative Behaviors in Leader-Member Dyads

This paper evoked leader-member exchange (LMX) and transformational leadership theories to explain innovative behavior in leader-member dyads. Data from 225 leader-member dyads in a Fortune 500 manufacturing plant found exchange quality to be positively related to follower autonomy, leader support of followers, and follower commitment to the organization. Further, followers who were supported by their leaders and who were committed to the organization were more likely to be innovative. Also, exchange quality was directly related to innovative behaviors. Contrary to expectations, transformational leadership was negatively related to innovative behaviors of followers.     

Coworker exchange: relationships between coworkers,leader-member exchange,and work attitudes

The study of leadership exchanges is extended by studying both leader-member exchanges (LMXs) and coworker exchanges (CWXs). Data from 110 coworker dyads were used to examine relationships between LMXs and CWXs and between exchange relationships and work attitudes. As predicted, the interaction between 2 coworkers' LMX scores predicted CWX quality for the coworker dyad. Also, after controlling for LMX, greater diversity in a worker's CWX relationships was negatively related to his or her organizational commitment but not job satisfaction. The quality of a worker's CWX relationships, however, did not moderate the relationship between CWX diversity and work attitudes.     

When and How Does LMX Differentiation Influence Followers’ Work Outcomes? The Interactive Roles of One's own LMX Status and Organizational Context

The fundamental premise of the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory is that leaders’ relationships with their followers vary in quality. Although LMX differentiation (i.e., within‐group variation in the quality of LMX) is generally considered a sound leadership practice, its effects on group members’ work outcomes remain poorly understood. Drawing on LMX and upper echelons theories, this study suggests that employees’ reactions to LMX differentiation depend on the personal LMX status of employees and the characteristics of the organizational context. Analyses of multilevel data collected from 502 employees organized into 135 work groups in 34 firms show that the impact of LMX differentiation on work outcomes is more positive (or less negative) for employees with lower rather than higher LMX. The findings highlight the importance of organizational boundary conditions for these interactions: The negative moderation by one's own LMX status is stronger when top managers decentralize responsibilities to lower hierarchical levels and weaker when top managers impose a shared vision to guide the organization.     

家长式领导与员工工作投入:心理授权的中介作用

对国内402名员工的关于家长式领导、工作投入和心理授权的问卷数据进行了分析,探索中国文化背景下组织特有的家长式领导与员工工作投入之间的关系及心理授权在二者关系中的中介作用。结果表明,家长式领导中的仁慈领导和威权领导两维度对员工工作投入有显著的预测作用;心理授权在仁慈领导和工作投入之间起着部分中介作用。     

Revisiting the mediating role of leader–member exchange in transformational leadership: the differential impact model

Transformational leadership (TFL) has been proposed as an essential antecedent of leader–member exchange (LMX), which in turn affects outcomes in organizations. We extend this mediation hypothesis in two ways by proposing a differential impact model, which we test on three organizational outcomes: employee job satisfaction, employee organizational commitment, and leader effectiveness. First, we extend LMX’s mediational impact—which has previously only been tested for employee outcomes—to leader effectiveness. Second, we argue that this mediation will be stronger for outcomes that are more proximal rather than distal to dyadic relations between leader and followers (high proximity: job satisfaction; medium proximity: organizational commitment; low proximity: leader effectiveness). Meta-analytic structural equation modelling based on 132 studies revealed that LMX mediates TFL’s relationships with employee outcomes (more strongly for job satisfaction than for commitment), but not with leader effectiveness, whereas TFL showed a stronger direct link to leader effectiveness. The findings suggest that TLF and LMX contribute differentially to organizational outcomes depending on their proximity to dyadic relations between leaders and followers. The differential impact model uncovers leadership effectiveness processes, integrates influential leadership theories, and highlights the importance of distinguishing between different outcome measures and the processes facilitating them.     

家长式领导与组织公正感的关系

以428名企事业单位员工为调查对象,采用问卷法,探讨了家长式领导与组织公正感的关系,结果表明：（1）仁慈领导对组织公正感各维度有显著的积极影响;德行领导对组织公正感各维度有显著的积极影响;权威领导对领导公正有显著的消极影响;（2）在分配公正、程序公正上,德行与权威领导有显著负交互效应;在领导公正、领导解释上,仁慈与权威领导有显著负交互效应。最后,对研究的理论和实践意义作了探讨,并提出了未来的研究方向     

Shared leadership and team effectiveness: The examination of LMX differentiation and servant leadership on the emergence and consequences of shared leadership

This study examined the effects of leader–member exchange (LMX) differentiation on team-shared leadership and team effectiveness. Drawing on the group engagement model, we suggested that LMX differentiation negatively affects team-shared leadership and team effectiveness (i.e., team performance and team organizational citizenship behavior [OCB]). Servant leadership weakens the negative effects of LMX differentiation on shared leadership. We tested our predictions using data from a sample of 336 salespersons nested in 110 sales teams in China. We found that shared leadership mediated the relationships between LMX differentiation with both team performance and team OCB. In addition, servant leadership moderated the relationship between LMX differentiation and shared leadership and the indirect relationship between LMX differentiation with both team performance and team OCB.     

Does paternalistic leadership promote innovative behavior? The interaction between authoritarianism and benevolence

We theorize about the separate and interactive effects of the two primary elements of paternalistic leadership: authoritarianism and benevolence. Accordingly, we test a mediating mechanism through which these components of paternalistic leadership stimulate employee innovative and knowledge‐sharing behaviors. A multi‐source and multi‐level study involving 302 employee‐supervisor‐peer triads in 60 Chinese technology‐based organizations supported the association between the interaction of benevolent and authoritarian leadership and employee affective trust, innovative behavior, and knowledge sharing. Moreover, affective trust mediated the interaction of benevolence and authoritarianism on employee innovative behavior and knowledge sharing. We suggest that, the two constructs underlying paternalistic leadership might promote employee breakthrough behaviors across cultures. That is, their demanding and yet selfless stance turns authoritarian‐benevolent leaders into prototypes of the followers' aspirational social identity.     

Transformational Leadership and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: A Moderated Mediation Model of Leader‐Member‐Exchange and Subordinates' Gender

Transformational leadership (TL) enhances follower Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) as mediated by leader‐member exchange (LMX). However, the strength of the positive associations among TL, LMX and OCB is subject to significant variability. Accordingly, we draw on several theories (self‐identity, role congruency, self‐concept, and social exchange) to propose that followers' gender moderates the relationships between all three of these variables. We argue differences in societal expectations and/or underlying motivation combine to make leadership of lesser importance to OCB among females than males. Using 202 supervisor‐subordinate dyads from Taiwan, a moderated mediation model of TL‐LMX‐OCB, with subordinate gender as a moderator, was tested. As hypothesised, each of the positive associations among TL, LMX and OCB were weaker for females than for males, thus accounting for some of the variability in the strength of the associations typically observed. Relatedly, although LMX fully mediated the TL‐OCB relationship in the entire sample, this effect was not observed among female subordinates. Further research is required to assess the degree to which these findings apply beyond the Confucian Asian societal cluster.     

Supervisors' upward exchange relationships and subordinate outcomes: testing the multilevel mediation role of empowerment

This study empirically examined the proposition that supervisors' exchange relationships with their own supervisors (i.e., leader-leader exchange, or LLX) are related to their subordinates' work-related outcomes through 3 mechanisms: (a) leaders modeling their LLX to develop and maintain their exchange relationships with their subordinates (i.e., leader-member exchange, or LMX), (b) motivating the team and its members, captured by team and individual empowerment, and (c) facilitating the relationships between LMX and individual outcomes. Analyses of multisource and lagged data from 104 team supervisors and 577 subordinates showed that LMX mediated the positive relationship of LLX on subordinates' individual empowerment. Furthermore, team empowerment and individual empowerment sequentially mediated the positive relationships between LLX and subordinates' job satisfaction and job performance. The authors also found that the indirect relationships of LMX with job satisfaction and job performance via individual empowerment were stronger when LLX was higher. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Demographic and Organizational Influences on Leader–Member Exchange and Related Work Attitudes

Demographic and organizational characteristics were examined for their ability to constrain or facilitate leader–member exchange [LMX] processes. Independent effects of these variables and LMX on work attitudes also were examined within a latent variable model. Data were collected from 208 employees in 31 public libraries. Demographic differences and organizational characteristics were found to be independently related to the quality of exchange. Organizational influences were more pervasive than demographic influences. Both context and LMX variables predicted work attitudes, with LMX providing an independent influence on those attitudes. Findings were consistent with the notions that LMX is a value-add process and that the leadership context can create boundaries for LMX development. The organizational findings also were consistent with the argument that context can affect leader discretion and thus LMX. Results are discussed in terms of boundary conditions on LMX and future research on understanding their role in leadership.