The persistence of the fluency–confidence association in problem solving

Confidence in answers is known to be sensitive to the fluency with which answers come to mind. One aspect of fluency is response latency. Latency is often a valid cue for accuracy, showing an inverse relationship with both accuracy rates and confidence. The present study examined the independent latency–confidence association in problem-solving tasks. The tasks were ecologically valid situations in which latency showed no validity, moderate validity, and high validity as a predictor of accuracy. In Experiment 1, misleading problems, which often elicit initial wrong solutions, were answered in open-ended and multiple-choice test formats. Under the open-ended test format, latency was absolutely not valid in predicting accuracy: Quickly and slowly provided solutions had a similar chance of being correct. Under the multiple-choice test format, latency predicted accuracy better. In Experiment 2, nonmisleading problems were used; here, latency was highly valid in predicting accuracy. A breakdown into correct and incorrect solutions allowed examination of the independent latency–confidence relationship when latency necessarily had no validity in predicting accuracy. In all conditions, regardless of latency’s validity in predicting accuracy, confidence was persistently sensitive to latency: The participants were more confident in solutions provided quickly than in those that involved lengthy thinking. The study suggests that the reliability of the latency–confidence association in problem solving depends on the strength of the inverse relationship between latency and accuracy in the particular task.     

Professional drivers’ fatigue as a problem of the modern era

ObjectiveAll around the world numerous studies have been carried out and indicated that 20–50% of commercial vehicle accidents occur because of fatigue. Professional drivers represent an important category of drivers who are present in traffic on a daily basis transporting passengers or goods and their responsibility is at a very high level. These drivers are most exposed to the impact of fatigue. The review of the literature has provided three main factors which can influence the onset of fatigue: sleep factors, work factors, health factors. The main aim of this study was to determine the influence of the three main factors of fatigue between bus and truck drivers in the Republic of Serbia.MethodsThe survey has been conducted among bus and truck drivers who are employed in transportation companies across the Republic of Serbia. The research consists of collecting and analyzing bus and truck drivers’ answers according to the above mentioned factors which influence the occurrence of fatigue.ResultsIn this study we have found that circadian rhythm, sleep and work factors have an impact on drivers’ fatigue. On the other side, time of going to sleep has no impact on the quality of sleep and on fatigue. The results show that if the drivers work over the legal limit, they are 3 times more likely to sleep less than 6 h in 24 h and if they sleep less than 6 h, it is likely that the poor quality of their sleep will be 8 times higher. The poor quality of sleep reduces driver performance, and therefore increases the risk of accidents.Conclusions2 of 3 investigated factors have an impact on the occurrence of fatigue. The third factor, health factor, should be examined in more detail, and other elements should be analysed in order to determine their influence on the fatigue.     

Framework analysis: a worked example of a study exploring young people’s experiences of depression

Framework analysis is an approach to qualitative research that is increasingly used across multiple disciplines, including psychology, social policy, and nursing research. The stages of framework analysis have been described in published work, but the literature is lacking in articles describing how to conduct it in practice, particularly in the field of psychology, where researchers may be working as part of a team. Having used framework analysis on a study exploring adolescents’ experiences of depression, we faced various challenges along the way and learned from experience how to use this approach to qualitative analysis. In this reflective article, we describe a worked example of using framework, which we hope will assist other researchers in deciding if this approach is suitable for their own research, and will provide guidance on how one might go about conducting framework analysis when working as part of a research team. We conclude that framework is a valuable contribution to qualitative methods in psychology, offering a pragmatic, flexible and rigorous approach to data analysis.     

Working memory and phonological processing as predictors of children’s mathematical problem solving at different ages

The study explored the contribution of working memory (WM) to mathematical problem solving in younger (8-year-old) and older (11-year-old) children. The results showed that (1) significant age-related differences in WM performance were maintained when measures of phonological processing (i.e., digit naming speed, short-term memory, phonological deletion) were partialed from the analysis; (2) WM predicted solution accuracy of word problems independently of measures of problem representation, knowledge of operations and algorithms, phonological processing, fluid intelligence, reading, and math skill; and (3) a second-order WM factor was correlated with problem solving, suggesting that a general or executive system underlies age-related performance. The results were interpreted as support for the notion that the executive system was an important predictor of age-related changes in problem solving beyond the contribution of math and reading skills, and this system operates independently of the phonological system and domain-specific knowledge in predicting solution accuracy.     

Unity and the Frege–Geach problem

The problem of the unity of the proposition asks what binds together the constituents of a proposition into a fully formed proposition that provides truth conditions for the assertoric sentence that expresses it, rather than merely a set of objects. Hanks’ solution is to reject the traditional distinction between content and force. If his theory is successful, then there is a plausible extension of it that readily solves the Frege–Geach problem for normative propositions. Unfortunately Hanks’ theory isn’t successful, but it does point to significant connections between expressivism, unity, and embedding.     

Eating disorder and obsessive–compulsive symptoms in a sample of bulimic women: Perfectionism as a mediating factor

The present study aimed to investigate whether perfectionism mediates the association between obsessive–compulsive (OC) and eating disorder (ED) symptoms. Analyses were conducted using data collected among a national sample of eating disordered women diagnosed with BN or a subclinical variant of BN (N = 204). Each participant completed a series of self-report inventories on perfectionism, as well as OC, ED, and depressive symptoms. Higher ED symptoms were significantly associated with greater levels of perfectionism (p < .01) and OC symptoms (p < .05). As hypothesized, perfectionism significantly mediated the relationship between ED and OC symptoms, controlling for depression. Findings indicate that perfectionism may be considered a shared etiological or phenomenological factor in ED and OC symptoms.     

A multitrait–multimethod study of assessment instruments for complex problem solving

Recently published studies on Complex Problem Solving (CPS) suggest that assessments of CPS using multiple complex systems are only moderately related to tests of classical cognitive abilities. Further, CPS assessments show incremental validity beyond tests of other cognitive abilities when predicting relevant outcomes. However, these empirical accounts have relied on single CPS assessment instruments. We do not know whether these findings will generalize to the construct level across different CPS assessment instruments. To answer this question, we tested a sample of N = 339 German university students who completed three CPS assessment instruments based on multiple complex systems (MicroDYN, the Genetics Lab, and MicroFIN) and the matrices subtest of the Intelligence Structure Test as measure of reasoning. Students further reported their school grades. Analyses including latent multitrait–multimethod models provided support for the conceptualization of CPS as a complex cognitive ability. Results indicated that different CPS assessment instruments showed sufficient convergent validity (with a consistency mostly between .50 and .60). In addition, we found evidence for the divergent validity of CPS from reasoning (reasoning predicted two CPS facets, knowledge and control, β_KNOW = .49 and β_CON = .53, respectively). In the prediction of academic achievement, CPS explained variance in natural science grades after we controlled for reasoning (β_CPS = .22), whereas social science grades were not predicted. Our findings suggest that the validity of CPS generalizes across different measurement instruments.     

Predication and the Frege–Geach problem

Several philosophers have recently appealed to predication in developing their theories of cognitive representation and propositions. One central point of difference between them is whether they take predication to be forceful or neutral and whether they take the most basic cognitive representational act to be judging or entertaining. Both views are supported by powerful reasons and both face problems. Many think that predication must be forceful if it is to explain representation. However, the standard ways of of implementing the idea give rise to the Frege–Geach problem. Others think that predication must be neutral, if we’re to avoid the Frege–Geach problem. However, it looks like nothing neutral can explain representation. My aim in this paper is to present a third view, one which respects the powerful reasons while avoiding the problems. On this view predication is forceful and can thus explain representation, but the idea is implemented in a novel way, avoiding the Frege–Geach problem. The key is to make sense of the notion of grasping a proposition as an objectual act, where the object is a proposition.

     

Internalization of children’s problem solving and individual differences in learning

The purpose of this study was to identify qualitative distinctions of six- to seven-year-old children’s learning that could be attributed to differences in their cross-domain levels of internalization of problem-solving activity. Two such distinctions were found: (a) the highest level (symbolic, visual-imagery, or visual-motor) at which the children were able to understand the algorithm for a new problem-solving process; and (b) the highest level (symbolic, visual-imagery, or visual-motor) at which they were able to perform a new problem-solving process after understanding its algorithm. These distinctions were coincident and stable for a particular child and were related to that child’s ability to transfer new knowledge.     

The Dretske–Tooley–Armstrong theory of natural laws and the inference problem

In this article I intend to show that the inference problem, one of the main objections raised against the anti-Humean theory of natural laws defended by Dretske, Tooley and Armstrong (“DTA theory” for short), can be successfully answered. First, I argue that a proper solution should meet two essential requirements that the proposals made by the DTA theorists do not satisfy. Then I state a solution to the inference problem that assumes a local immanentistic view of universals, a partial definition of the nomic necessitation relation as a relation of existential dependence, and a principle constraining multiple occupancy. I also argue that my solution meets the two requirements. Finally, I deal with non-standard laws such as exclusion laws, causal laws and laws involving spatiotemporal parameters.     

The Aha! moment: Is insight a different form of problem solving?

In everyday life, we mainly solve problems with a conscious solution search (non-insight). However, sometimes a perplexing problem is resolved by a quantum leap in understanding. This phenomenon is known as the Aha! experience (insight). Although insight has a distinct phenomenological and behavioral signature, its driving mechanism remains debated. Weisberg (2015) proposed an integrated theory of insight arguing that insight, like non-insight, mainly depends on conscious, cognitive operations with restructuring as a distinguishing feature of insight. However, only if those operations lead to an impasse, insight is achieved through unconscious processes. We assessed some of the premises of this theory by asking participants (N = 42) to solve 70 word puzzles (CRAT) that can either be solved with insight or non-insight. For each puzzle, participants indicated word puzzle difficulty, solution confidence, solution suddenness, and the experiences of impasse and restructuring. As expected, participants reported higher suddenness of and confidence in insight solutions than non-insightful ones. Surprisingly, we could not corroborate the otherwise consistently reported higher solution accuracy and faster solution speed for insight. Crucially, as suggested by the integrated theory of insight, impasse was not a prerequisite for insight to occur. Although restructuring, indeed, preceded insight solutions more often, it seemed a more general problem-solving skill also applied for non-insight solutions. Moreover, early on, participants reported an increased experience of problem difficulty for puzzles later solved with insight. This ability to report on the solution search of insight demonstrates that, as proposed by the theory, insight involves conscious, cognitive operations.     

The effect of students’ roles on the establishment of shared knowledge during collaborative problem solving: a case study from the field of mathematics

According to role theory each participant in a peer interaction performs a specific role in order to maintain his/her face. The aim of the present study was to examine whether the roles performed during collaborative problem solving affect the establishment of shared mathematical knowledge. The participants of our study were 40 student teachers who worked in dyads to solve three mathematical problems. The categorization of the roles performed and the analysis of their effect in the establishment of shared knowledge led us to the conclusion that certain role combinations enhance while others hinder the establishment of shared mathematical knowledge. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 28th Annual Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (PME 28), held in Bergen, Norway in 2004.     

Inductive explanation and Garber–Style solutions to the problem of old evidence

Synthese - The Problem of Old Evidence is a perennial issue for Bayesian confirmation theory. Garber (Test Sci Theor 10:99–131, 1983) famously argues that the problem can be solved by...     

Homeopathic remedies as placebo alternatives — verification on the example of treatment of menopause-related vegetative and emotional disturbances

With the example of treatment of menopause-related vegetative and emotional disturbances, the author verifies the effectiveness of the use of Ignatia amara containing complex homeopathic remedies (IACCHR) as an alternative to placebo. Substantial improvement in psychological and psychosomatic symptoms was observed. Climacteric complaints diminished or disappeared completely in the majority of women (95.7% by patient evaluation and 96.2% by physician evaluation). Compared to standard pharmaceuticals, IACCHR treatment was tolerated better and lower risk of side effects was observed. The results obtained in this work indicate the significant therapeutic potential of this group of treatments, which is in line with the therapeutic effect of the placebo. Nevertheless, the showing of specific effects in pharmacological tests disqualifies the investigated treatments from use in a clinical trial in place of a placebo. An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “Placebo: Its Action and Place in Health Research Today,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 12–13 April, 2003.     

Crying as a Form of Parent–Infant Communication in the Context of Maternal Depression

In cases of maternal depression certain complex factors interfere with communication with the child. The present study sought to investigate forms of parent–infant communication in families in which the mother was experiencing postpartum depression. Particular emphasis was placed on analysis of crying patterns and on methods employed by parents to soothe the child. The study sample comprised 15 families in which the mother had a diagnosis of postpartum depression. Semi-structured interviews were performed, followed by qualitative content analysis. Results showed that depressed mothers—and, at times, their husbands—reported difficulties in communication with their child, particularly in distinguishing different types of cries and in ways of soothing the infant. Postpartum depression is discussed as a specific diagnosis, beyond its relational aspect, which affects the family as a whole.     

SES differences in young children’s metacognition in the context of mathematical problem solving

This investigation examines socioeconomic (SES) differences in young children’s development of key aspects of metacognition and related language. The participants were 102 children ranging in age from 4 years 0 months to 5 years 11 months in five daycare centers located in New York City. Metacognitive abilities and language were observed as children engaged in an individually administered clinical interview concerning mathematical problem solving. The results indicate that the ability to describe thinking and explain ideas is stronger in the upper-SES group than the middle- or lower-SES groups. The findings also indicate that all the SES groups, and children of both ages, show little awareness of mistakes and adaptability without adult assistance. The capacity to express thinking was found to increase with age during early childhood. The results suggest that young children begin to employ rudimentary forms of metacognition before the onset of formal schooling. Implications for education are discussed.     

Enactivism and the “problem” of perceptual presence

One of the classic debates in cognitive science is between nativism and empiricism about the development of psychological capacities. In principle, the debate is empirical. However, in practice nativist hypotheses have also been challenged for relying on an ill-defined, or even unscientific, notion of innateness as that which is “not learned”. Here this minimal conception of innateness is defended on four fronts. First, it is argued that the minimal conception is crucial to understanding the nativism-empiricism debate, when properly construed; Second, various objections to the minimal conception—that it risks overgeneralization, lacks an account of learning, frustrates genuine explanations of psychological development, and fails to unify different notions of innateness across the sciences—are rebutted. Third, it is argued that the minimal conception avoids the shortcomings of primitivism, the prominent view that innate capacities are those that are not acquired via a psychological process in development. And fourth, the minimal conception undermines some attempts to identify innateness with a natural kind. So in short, we have little reason to reject, and good reason to accept, the minimal conception of innateness in cognitive science.

     

Are diagrams always helpful tools? Developmental and individual differences in the effect of presentation format on student problem solving

Background. High school and college students demonstrate a verbal, or textual, advantage whereby beginning algebra problems in story format are easier to solve than matched equations ( Koedinger & Nathan, 2004 ). Adding diagrams to the stories may further facilitate solution ( Hembree, 1992 ; Koedinger & Terao, 2002 ). However, diagrams may not be universally beneficial ( Ainsworth, 2006 ; Larkin & Simon, 1987 ). Aims. To identify developmental and individual differences in the use of diagrams, story, and equation representations in problem solving. When do diagrams begin to aid problem‐solving performance? Does the verbal advantage replicate for younger students? Sample. Three hundred and seventy‐three students (121 sixth, 117 seventh, 135 eighth grade) from an ethnically diverse middle school in the American Midwest participated in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, 84 sixth graders who had participated in Experiment 1 were followed up in seventh and eighth grades. Method. In both experiments, students solved algebra problems in three matched presentation formats (equation, story, story + diagram). Results. The textual advantage was replicated for all groups. While diagrams enhance performance of older and higher ability students, younger and lower‐ability students do not benefit, and may even be hindered by a diagram's presence. Conclusions. The textual advantage is in place by sixth grade. Diagrams are not inherently helpful aids to student understanding and should be used cautiously in the middle school years, as students are developing competency for diagram comprehension during this time.