The Gaussian Graphical Model in Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Data

We discuss the Gaussian graphical model (GGM; an undirected network of partial correlation coefficients) and detail its utility as an exploratory data analysis tool. The GGM shows which variables predict one-another, allows for sparse modeling of covariance structures, and may highlight potential causal relationships between observed variables. We describe the utility in three kinds of psychological data sets: data sets in which consecutive cases are assumed independent (e.g., cross-sectional data), temporally ordered data sets (e.g., n = 1 time series), and a mixture of the 2 (e.g., n > 1 time series). In time-series analysis, the GGM can be used to model the residual structure of a vector-autoregression analysis (VAR), also termed graphical VAR. Two network models can then be obtained: a temporal network and a contemporaneous network. When analyzing data from multiple subjects, a GGM can also be formed on the covariance structure of stationary means—the between-subjects network. We discuss the interpretation of these models and propose estimation methods to obtain these networks, which we implement in the R packages graphicalVAR and mlVAR. The methods are showcased in two empirical examples, and simulation studies on these methods are included in the supplementary materials.     

Psychometric network models from time-series and panel data

Researchers in the field of network psychometrics often focus on the estimation of Gaussian graphical models (GGMs)—an undirected network model of partial correlations—between observed variables of cross-sectional data or single-subject time-series data. This assumes that all variables are measured without measurement error, which may be implausible. In addition, cross-sectional data cannot distinguish between within-subject and between-subject effects. This paper provides a general framework that extends GGM modeling with latent variables, including relationships over time. These relationships can be estimated from time-series data or panel data featuring at least three waves of measurement. The model takes the form of a graphical vector-autoregression model between latent variables and is termed the ts-lvgvar when estimated from time-series data and the panel-lvgvar when estimated from panel data. These methods have been implemented in the software package psychonetrics, which is exemplified in two empirical examples, one using time-series data and one using panel data, and evaluated in two large-scale simulation studies. The paper concludes with a discussion on ergodicity and generalizability. Although within-subject effects may in principle be separated from between-subject effects, the interpretation of these results rests on the intensity and the time interval of measurement and on the plausibility of the assumption of stationarity.

     

False memory,attentional bias and future thinking among people living with HIV with posttraumatic stress disorder

People living with HIV can experience posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Complex relationships exist between HIV, PTSD and cognitive impairments. This cross-sectional study compared three cognitive impairments (false memory, attentional bias, deficits in future thinking) among people living with HIV with and without PTSD in Iran. People living with HIV with PTSD (n = 20) and without PTSD (n = 20) completed measures of psychological symptomatology, dot-probe task, Deese Roediger McDermott paradigm and future thinking task at Razavi Khorasan Health Center. The PTSD group, when compared to the non-PTSD group, recognised a significantly greater number of false memories (p < .001; η² = .58), had an attentional bias toward threat-related words (p < .001; η² = .35) and imagined fewer specific future events (p < .001; η² = .31). People living with HIV with PTSD may have difficulties with false memory, attentional biases, and generating future events. Since psychological treatments are limited in Iran, this research highlighted some potential cognitive targets for people living with HIV.     

Beyond statistical significance: Five principles for the new era of data analysis and reporting

A crisis of confidence in research findings in consumer psychology and other academic disciplines has led to various proposals to abandon, replace, strengthen, or supplement the null hypothesis significance testing paradigm. The proliferation of such proposals, and their often-conflicting recommendations, can increase confusion among researchers. We aim to bring some clarity by proposing five simple principles for the new era of data analysis and reporting of research in consumer psychology. We avoid adding to researchers' confusion and proposing more onerous or rigid standards. Our goal is to offer straightforward practical principles that are easy for researchers to keep in mind while analyzing their data and reporting their findings. These principles involve (1) interpreting p-values as continuous measures of the strength of evidence, (2) being aware of assumptions that determine whether one can rely on p-values, (3) using theory to establish the applicability of findings to new settings, (4) employing multiple measures of evidence and various processes to obtain them, but assigning special privilege to none, and (5) reporting procedures and findings transparently and completely. We hope that these principles provide researchers with some guidance and help to strengthen the reliability of the conclusions derived from their data, analyses, and findings.     

Monotone spline transformations for dimension reduction

Consider a set of data consisting of measurements ofn objects with respect top variables displayed in ann ×p matrix. A monotone transformation of the values in each column, represented as a linear combination of integrated basis splines, is assumed determined by a linear combination of a new set of values characterizing each row object. Two different models are used: one, an Eckart-Young decomposition model, and the other, a multivariate normal model. Examples for artificial and real data are presented. The results indicate that both methods are helpful in choosing dimensionality and that the Eckart-Young model is also helpful in displaying the relationships among the objects and the variables. Also, results suggest that the resulting transformations are themselves illuminating.     

A multistage ranking model

In this paper, we propose a (n–1)² parameter, multistage ranking model, which represents a generalization of Luce's model. We propose then×n item-rank relative frequency matrix (p-matrix) as a device for summarizing a set of rankings. As an alternative to the traditional maximum likelihood estimation, for the proposed model we suggest a method which estimates the parameters from thep-matrix. An illustrative numerical example is given. The proposed model and its differences from Luce's model are briefly discussed. We also show some specialp-matrix patterns possessed by the Thurstonian models and distance-based models.     

A cross-cultural study of trait self-enhancement, explanatory variables, and adjustment

We investigated trait self-enhancement, explanatory variables, and adjustment in European American (n = 141), Asian American (n = 72), Mexican (n = 141), and Filipino (n = 174) college students. Consistent with trait perspectives, students in all cultural groups rated their traits with moderate to high accuracy, using peer ratings as a criterion. European Americans did not exhibit self-enhancement relative to peers, but both self and peer ratings were higher (i.e., more positive) for European Americans than for the other three groups. Support was found for some, but not all, cultural psychology explanations of self-enhancement. In all cultural groups, self-enhancement was more associated with personal (intrapsychic) adjustment than interpersonal adjustment, as judged by peers. The results provided support for an integration of trait and cultural psychology perspectives.     

Burnout risk among first-year teacher students: The roles of personality and motivation

The present study identified individual variables by which first-year teacher students' risk for burnout can be detected at an early stage. We analyzed a sample of teacher students (n = 559) and a control group of psychology students (n = 150) by using multinomial logistic regression analyses. We estimated the impact of personality (Five-Factor model) and motivation for choosing teacher education on work-related coping behavior and experiences (WCEP types: healthy-ambitious, unambitious, excessively-ambitious, and risk for burnout). Neuroticism and the extrinsic motivation of choosing teacher education (the assumed low difficulty of studies) were risk factors for unhealthy, stress-related coping behavior and experiences. In contrast, high levels of extraversion and conscientiousness as well as intrinsic motivation for choosing teacher education (subject-specific interest) were related to healthy-ambitious behavior. Relations of personality and stress-related WCEP types were partially moderated according to field of study (teaching versus psychology). Our results are of particular importance for improving counseling programs that advise prospective teacher students regarding their individual fit to the requirements and challenges of the teaching profession and for correcting false expectations about study demands.     

Teacher–Practitioner Multiple-Role Issues in Sport Psychology

The potential for the occurrence of multiple-role relationships is increased when professors also consult with athletic teams on their campuses. Such multiple-role relationships have potential ethical implications that are unclear and largely unexplored, and consultants may find multiple-role relationships both difficult to deal with and unavoidable. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the nature of teacher–practitioner multiple-role relationships. Participants (N = 35) were recruited from Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) certified consultants (CCs) who were also affiliated with a university (N = 68). All participants completed a 28-item survey exploring the incidence and relevant issues pertaining to multiple-role relationships. Chi-square analyses revealed that licensed mental health practitioners (i.e., psychologists and counselors) were more likely than nonlicensed AAASP CCs to believe that multiple-role relationships were never appropriate in sport psychology, χ²(1, N = 30) = 12.80, p < .001, and to have never taken part in a multiple-role relationship, χ²(1, N = 33) = 12.44, p < .001. Independent samples t tests revealed that mental health practitioners also reported that they would have higher levels of concern for both the practitioner, t(30) = –2.77, p = .009, and the client, t(30) = –2.50, p = .018, in such a relationship.     

Does habit strength moderate the intention–behaviour relationship in the Theory of Planned Behaviour? The case of fruit consumption

The present study examined if habit strength moderated the influence of intention on fruit consumption in a Dutch adult sample (N?=?521, 46.3% males, mean age?=?34.50, SD?=?10.87), using the theoretical relations of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). TPB variables and habit strength were assessed at baseline. Fruit consumption was assessed with a validated questionnaire five weeks later. Three groups were created: low habit strength (n?=?180), medium habit strength (n?=?185) and high habit strength (n?=?156). Confirmatory factor analyses and multi-group path analyses were performed using AMOS 4.0. A good fit was obtained for the overall measurement model and the structural models. Multi-group path analyses showed that intention was a significant predictor of fruit consumption in the low habit (β?=?0.36, p?<?0.001) and medium habit group (β?=?0.30, p?<?0.001), but a non-significant predictor in the high habit group (β?=?0.05, p?=?0.596). Implications for information-based and motivation-based interventions are discussed.     

The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Performance Among College Basketball Players

This study explored the nature of the relationship between muscle dysmorphia symptoms and self-concept as well as negative affect variables. Female (n = 183) and male (n = 103) college students completed a packet of questionnaires. Data were analyzed using canonical correlation analyses and revealed significant relationships between the sets of variables. Specifically, the variance explained by muscle dysmorphia symptoms in self-concept and negative affect variables was greater than the variance explained in muscle dysmorphia symptoms by self-concept and negative affect. Perceived body attractiveness and social physique anxiety were the individual variables that predominantly contributed to the multivariate relationships.     

A simplification of a result by zellini on the maximal rank of symmetric three-way arrays

Zellini (1979, Theorem 3.1) has shown how to decompose an arbitrary symmetric matrix of ordern ×n as a linear combination of 1/2n(n+1) fixed rank one matrices, thus constructing an explicit tensor basis for the set of symmetricn ×n matrices. Zellini's decomposition is based on properties of persymmetric matrices. In the present paper, a simplified tensor basis is given, by showing that a symmetric matrix can also be decomposed in terms of 1/2n(n+1) fixed binary matrices of rank one. The decomposition implies that ann ×n ×p array consisting ofp symmetricn ×n slabs has maximal rank 1/2n(n+1). Likewise, an unconstrained INDSCAL (symmetric CANDECOMP/PARAFAC) decomposition of such an array will yield a perfect fit in 1/2n(n+1) dimensions. When the fitting only pertains to the off-diagonal elements of the symmetric matrices, as is the case in a version of PARAFAC where communalities are involved, the maximal number of dimensions can be further reduced to 1/2n(n–1). However, when the saliences in INDSCAL are constrained to be nonnegative, the tensor basis result does not apply. In fact, it is shown that in this case the number of dimensions needed can be as large asp, the number of matrices analyzed.     

GROUP ATTITUDE UNIFORMITY AND CONNECTIVITY OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS FOR PRODUCTION,INNOVATION, AND MAINTENANCE CONTENT

Prior laboratory research on group uniformity suggests the general hypothesis that as correspondence increases between the content on which communication networks and attitude-beliefs are defined, increasing group network connectivity is associated with increasing member uniformity. To test derived hypotheses, natural groups from a large organization are identified through communication network analysis on production (n= 17), innovation (n= 16), and maintenance (n= 16) content. As expected, production and innovation groups show relationships between connectivity and attitude-belief uniformity, with production the stronger of the two; maintenance groups show little association, perhaps due to a content definition restricted to interpersonal problems. The predicted positive relationship between connectivity and uniformity occurs for social-emotional variables in the production network. However, unexpectedly in both production and innovation networks personality variables become less uniform as connectivity increases. As suggested, task variables operate differently in association with connectivity in production and innovation networks, although the differences are more pronounced than expected; in production, uniformity on these variables is negatively associated with connectivity, while in innovation they are positively associated.     

Family as a salient source of meaning in young adulthood

Five studies demonstrated the role of family relationships as an important source of perceived meaning in life. In Study 1 (n?=?50), 68% participants reported that their families were the single most significant contributor to personal meaning. Study 2 (n?=?231) participants ranked family above 12 likely sources of meaning. Studies 3 (n?=?87) and 4 (n?=?130) demonstrated that participants’ reports of their closeness to family (Study 3) and support from family (Study 4) predicted perceived meaning in life, even when controlling for several competing variables. Study 5 (n?=?261) ruled out social desirability as an alternative explanation to the proposed relationship between family and meaning. We conclude that for young adults, family relationships are a primary source of meaning in life and they contribute to their sense of meaning.     

Cognitive-behavioral,solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal striving,well-being,and hope

Research is in its infancy in the newly emerging field of coaching psychology. This study examined the effects of a 10-week cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching group programme. Participants were randomly allocated to a life coaching group programme (n =?28) or a waitlist control group (n =?28). Participation in the life coaching group programme was associated with significant increases in goal striving, well-being and hope, with gains maintained up to 30 weeks later on some variables. Hope theory may explain such positive outcomes. Life coaching programmes that utilize evidence-based techniques may provide a framework for further research on psychological processes that occur in non-clinical populations who wish to make purposeful change and enhance their positive psychological functioning.     

Measuring and testing the agreement of matrices

The problem of comparing the agreement of two n × n matrices has a variety of applications in experimental psychology. A well-known index of agreement is based on the sum of the element-wise products of the matrices. Although less familiar to many researchers, measures of agreement based on within-row and/or within-column gradients can also be useful. We provide a suite of MATLAB programs for computing agreement indices and performing matrix permutation tests of those indices. Programs for computing exact p-values are available for small matrices, whereas resampling programs for approximate p-values are provided for larger matrices.     

Radio psychology: A comparison of listeners and non-listeners

The major objective of this study was the application of help-seeking models to the study of radio psychology. A total of 443 subjects was divided into two research groups, non-listeners (n = 246) and listeners (n = 197) to at least one of two Israeli radio counselling programmes dealing with parent-child and interpersonal relationships. Through telephone interviews the subjects' responses to the instruments designed specifically for this type of study were reported: listening motivations, attitudes towards psychological help and reasons for non-listening. The results revealed that while listeners do not necessarily perceive themselves as help-seekers they, as well as the non-listeners, attributed listening to the motivations of curiosity, comparison with others and attaining psychological knowledge. The results suggested that listening to radio psychology programmes is a means of facilitating the earlier stages of the help-seeking process.     

Patterns of Aggression in Parents and their Children

In this research, we examined children's awareness of inconsistencies in messages that are meaningful for children, instructions for games. In the first experiment, kindergarten (n = 25) and second- (n = 25) and fourth-grade (n = 26) children were individually read the instructions for two games, each of which included two inconsistent statements. Chi-square analyses yielded a significant effect for grade for one game (p < .05) and a marginally significant effect for a second game (p < .10). In a second experiment, second- (n = 40), fourth- (n = 40), and sixth-grade (n = 40) children were read the instructions for two games, each of which included two statements that were inconsistent. An analysis of variance demonstrated that with an increase in grade, there was a significant increase (p < .001) in awareness that a message contained an inconsistency. The analysis also indicated that the subjects were more willing (p < .08) to question an adult than they were to question a child about an inconsistency. Moreover, a regression analysis indicated that awareness of inconsistencies in the rules for games was significantly related to memory (p < .001) and to one's ability to note inconsistencies in shorter, simpler messages (p < .001).