Cognitive Flexibility and Pro‐environmental Behaviour: A Multimethod Approach

While cognitive flexibility has been hypothesized to relate to adaptive, long‐term‐oriented behaviour, empirical support for such a relationship is scarce. In the present article, we examine the role of cognitive flexibility as a correlate of long‐term‐oriented behaviour in the domain of environmental conservation. In a first study (N = 143), we explored potential associations between multiple self‐report scales and performance‐based measures of cognitive flexibility and pro‐environmental behaviour. Based on its results, we conducted a pre‐registered confirmatory study (N = 264) focusing on the most promising correlations found in our exploratory study. This study generated conclusive support for a positive medium‐sized correlation between cognitive flexibility and pro‐environmental behaviour. Exploratory hierarchical regression analyses further revealed that cognitive flexibility accounted for a small portion of variance in pro‐environmental behaviour above and beyond the Big Five. While appearing robust on the level of self‐reports, the relationship between cognitive flexibility and pro‐environmental behaviour did not reliably extend to the level of performance tasks, possibly because of their relatively specific scope. These results illustrate the contribution of cognitive flexibility to understanding individual differences in long‐term‐oriented, pro‐environmental behaviour. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

A Closer Look at Life Goals Across Adulthood: Applying a Developmental Perspective to Content,Dynamics, and Outcomes of Goal Importance and Goal Attainability

It is well established that goals energize and direct behaviour across the lifespan. To better understand how goals are embedded in people's lives across adulthood, the present research examined life goals' content (health, personal growth, prosocial engagement, social relations, status, work), dynamics (interplay between goal importance and goal attainability), and outcomes (subjective well‐being) from a developmental perspective. We argue that people rate those goals as important and attainable that enable them to master developmental tasks, that they adapt their goals to personal capacities, and that goals predict subjective well‐being after 2 and 4 years. The sample included 973 individuals (18–92 years old, M = 43.00 years) of whom 637 participated 2 years later and 573 participated 4 years later. Goal importance and well‐being were assessed at all occasions and goal attainability at the first two occasions. Results indicated that age was negatively associated with importance and attainability of personal‐growth, status, and work goals but positively associated with importance and attainability of prosocial‐engagement goals. The association between goal importance and attainability was largely bidirectional over time; and goal attainability, rather than goal importance, was positively linked to later well‐being. Implications of these findings are discussed in light of adult lifespan development. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Tracing the Path from Personality — via Cooperativeness — to Conservation

Ecological behaviour is often conceptualized as an instance of cooperating in a social dilemma situation. Thus, it has been argued to relate to dispositional tendencies of moral virtue and pro‐social orientation. To embed such notions in models of basic personality, we herein predicted that the recently proposed sixth basic personality factor, Honesty–Humility — which specifically pertains to individual differences in cooperativeness — is linked to environmental attitudes and ecological behaviour. Results from two studies (N = 137 and N = 531, respectively) supported these hypotheses and showed that Honesty–Humility explains incremental variance beyond the remaining, more classical five factors of personality. In addition, mediation analyses revealed that Honesty–Humility exerts part of its influence via individual differences in pro‐social value orientations. Individual tendencies to cooperate in social dilemma situations could thus be shown to form a bridge between basic personality dimensions and ecological behaviour. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Beneficial effects of pro‐social behaviour on physical well‐being in Chinese samples

To confirm the relationship between pro‐social behaviour and increased physical functioning revealed by previous researchers in Western samples, we conducted four experiments with 378 Chinese undergraduates. The participants' strength to hold, to grip and to lift, as well as their vitality (walking speed), were measured after thinking of acts of kindness. The results showed that recalling pro‐social behaviour (helping others or spending money on others) that had occurred in the past or imagining pro‐social behaviour happening in the future imbued people with more physical strength and vitality. In three experiments, pro‐social behaviour boosted the positive mood of the actors, but the effect was only significant in one experiment, suggesting that the hidden gift may include increased happiness, but that enhanced physical functioning cannot be accounted for by differences in emotions. These results add to the evidence that the function of pro‐social behaviour in promoting physical functioning may be culturally universal.     

Determinants of pro‐environmental consumption intention in rural China: The role of traditional cultures,personal attitudes and reference groups

This study aimed to identify social‐psychological predictors of pro‐environmental consumption intention in rural China. To this end, a proposed conceptual model was tested by analyzing the survey data derived from 972 rural respondents in Jiangxi province in south‐eastern China. Results showed that the endorsement of traditional cultures (man–nature orientation and collectivism) was linked with pro‐environmental consumption behaviuor, but was mediated by intentions. Personal attitudes (environmental cognition and environmental affect) and reference groups influenced both intention and behaviour. The results also provided good evidence of the intention–behaviour relationship. These findings provided a better understanding of the process in which Chinese rural residents developed their pro‐environmental consumption behaviours.     

Understanding pro‐environmental intentions by integrating insights from social mobility,cosmopolitanism, and social dominance

To offer an integrative account bridging individuals’ sociocultural orientations with pro‐environmentalism, the current research tested the mediating and moderating relationships among pro‐environmental intentions and three person‐level factors: perceived social mobility, cosmopolitan orientation, and social dominance orientation (SDO). With a Singaporean college student sample (N = 220), we found support for the hypothesized second‐stage moderation model that perceived social mobility positively predicts cosmopolitan orientation, and in turn, cosmopolitan orientation is moderated by SDO to positively predict pro‐environmental intentions. Specifically, lower levels of SDO strengthen the pro‐environmental advantages of endorsing higher levels of cosmopolitan orientation. These findings add novel knowledge to the environmental psychology literature by advancing an integrative approach that demonstrates how the interplay of people's perceptions about the social, cultural, and group standing impacts their likelihood to engage in pro‐environmental actions. We discuss the implications that an egalitarian worldview toward other cultures, social groups, and human–nature relations might be the key to addressing the global challenge of climate change.     

The relationship of environmental concern with public and private pro-environmental behaviours: A pre-registered meta-analysis

Previous meta-analyses identified a gap between environmental concern and pro-environmental behaviours. However, the failure to differentiate these behaviours and the influence of contextual factors may limit understanding of the gap. This pre-registered meta-analysis evaluated the magnitudes of the correlations of environmental concern, as measured by the New Environmental Paradigm of thinking, with public and private pro-environmental behaviours and investigated the moderating roles of sociocultural contexts. Environmental concern was found positively correlated with public pro-environmental behaviour (k = 10, N = 4636; r = 0.27) and private pro-environmental behaviour (k = 31, N = 20,907; r = 0.35). These two pooled correlations did not differ significantly. Institutionalization of environmental protection did not moderate these correlations, while cultural factors, including individualism, long-term orientation, and external control, did. These findings maintain the utility of environmental concern in facilitating different pro-environmental behaviours and highlight the lack of research attention on public pro-environmental behaviour.     

Determinants influencing conservation behaviour: Perceptions of Vietnamese consumers

Environmental degradation is one of the most serious issues impacting our lives and those of future generations. In this respect, several studies on pro‐environmental behaviour have investigated the attitude–behaviour relationship of consumers. This study builds on previous models and examines the influence of four relevant determinants, i.e. consumers' perceptions associated with environmental concern, ecological effect, perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) and moral obligation on their pro‐environmental behaviour. The data were collected from consumers in Vietnam, where there are serious environmental issues. The findings suggest that all the four determinants influenced consumers' conservation behaviour, albeit each in varying strengths. The most influential determinant was PCE, followed by ecological effect, environmental concern and finally moral obligation. The findings of this study have important academic and practical implications. Government and private environmental and sustainability campaigners, especially in Vietnam, would be well advised to use these findings in developing and designing new policies and initiatives aimed at enhancing consumers' pro‐environmental behaviour. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Politics,concern for future generations,and the environment: Generativity mediates political conservatism and environmental attitudes

Climate change and pollution impact those alive today as well as future generations, suggesting that attitudes toward future generations may be linked with environmental attitudes. Despite the widespread impact of the environmental on human lives, there is considerable partisan divide in the United States with regards to environmental issues. We investigated relationships between political conservatism, generativity, and environmental attitudes in two studies (N = 429 and N = 618). Political conservatism was associated with lower pro‐environmental attitudes; however, political conservatism was also associated with higher generativity and had a positive indirect effect on pro‐environmental attitudes through higher generativity. More politically conservative individuals may have greater concern for future life and thereby have more pro‐environmental attitudes even while having lower pro‐environmental attitudes overall. These results likely reflect partisan polarization with regard to environmental issues. Pro‐environmental messages may be more persuasive for conservatives if they are linked to concerns about future generations.     

Understanding green purchase behavior through death anxiety and individual social responsibility: Mastery as a moderator

This research proposes a framework to explore green consumption behavior from the perspective of the anxiety of death and individual social responsibility. Research data are collected from a sample of 280 consumers in Taipei, Taiwan. The findings reveal that consumers' anxiety of death affects consumers' green purchase attitude and then ultimately green purchase intention through the mediating variables of environmental concern and pro‐environmental behavior. On a similar line, individual social responsibility is found to act as a precursor in increasing consumer's concern for the environment and, eventually, green purchase attitude and intention. Mastery is found to invigorate the effect of death anxiety on green concern and pro‐environmental behavior, while it enervates the relationship between individual social responsibility and environmental concern.     

The Oneness Beliefs Scale: Connecting Spirituality with Pro‐Environmental Behavior

The inherent unity of all phenomena, or oneness, is a central concept of mysticism, but there have heretofore been no measures of oneness beliefs. We developed the Oneness Beliefs Scale, with spiritual and physical oneness subscales. The spiritual oneness subscale fills a need in the field for a short, reliable measure of spirituality not characterized by the language of traditional Western religiousness. The physical oneness subscale allows researchers to juxtapose spiritual beliefs with a nonspiritual, materialist counterpart. We found that spiritual oneness beliefs were more strongly related to mystic experiences and spirituality than to traditional religiousness. Physical oneness was not strongly associated with either religiousness or spirituality. Both spiritual and physical oneness were positively associated with pro‐environmental attitudes but not with depression, anxiety, or negative affect. Spiritual oneness was a better predictor of pro‐environmental attitudes than was religiousness. Spiritual oneness also predicted donating to a pro‐environmental group, making this to our knowledge the first empirical study to show a positive association between a religion or spirituality measure and observed, rather than self‐reported, pro‐environmental behavior.     

Does power boost happiness? The relative importance of personal versus social power in two cultures

Researchers have revealed that power has both independent and interdependent aspects, and how the two dimensions are activated depends on contextual goals and values. In the present study, we tested the differential effects of power on happiness in two cultures that differ in their relative emphasis of social relations. We hypothesized that in an interdependent culture (South Korea), power based on interpersonal connectedness (i.e., social power) would enhance happiness more than would power that stems from independence from others (i.e., personal power). In contrast, in an independent culture (America), we examined whether personal power would bring more happiness than would social power. Findings showed that social power increased life satisfaction but personal power decreased affective well‐being among Korean participants. In contrast, American participants' personal power enhanced their subjective well‐being, but their well‐being did not differ by levels of social power. Implications of these findings for types of power, happiness, and culture are discussed.     

The impact of a rural or urban context in eating awareness and self‐regulation strategies in children and adolescents from eight European countries

Complex relationships exist between eating behaviour and personal and environmental factors. Rural and urban geographic contexts seem to play a role in eating behaviour, and therefore deserve a deeper study. A healthy eating behaviour and the conditions that promote it are a major issue in the promotion of adolescent health. The study aims to investigate the associations between the area of residence (urban vs. rural), self‐regulation strategies (TESQ‐E) and eating behaviours among children and adolescents. A total of 11,820 adolescents (50.6% girls) participated in the study, with a mean age of 13.30 years (SD= 2.13). Nine countries (The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Poland, Portugal, Denmark, Romania, Germany, Finland and Belgium) completed a questionnaire in the school context, asking about the use of self‐regulation strategies, eating behaviour awareness/care and sociodemographic questions such as age, gender and residential area. Both areas of residence (urban vs. rural) are associated with eating awareness/care in Romania and Portugal, controlling for age, gender and self‐regulation strategies. In some European countries at least, and most probably around the world, health promotion should focus on an ecological approach that includes the understanding of the effect of both environmental factors and personal skills on eating behaviour/awareness.     

Parenting and child behaviour problems: a longitudinal analysis of non‐shared environment

This study examined potential non‐shared environmental processes in middle childhood by estimating statistical associations between monozygotic (MZ) twin differences in externalizing and internalizing problems and positive social engagement, and differential maternal positivity and negativity, over 1 year. Seventy‐seven pairs of identical twins participated (M=6.08‐years old, 65% male) in two annual home visits. Observers' ratings and maternal reports were gathered. At both assessments, the twin who showed more conduct problems (maternal report and observers' ratings) and less positive social engagement (positive affect, responsiveness) received more maternal negativity and less maternal warmth (self‐reports and observers' ratings), relative to his or her genetically identical co‐twin. The same patterns held over time, for the associations between change in differential MZ twin conduct problems and social engagement and change in differential maternal behaviour. Effects for child internalizing problems were not consistent within or across raters. Overall, these results indicated that differential maternal warmth and negativity—self‐perceived and observed by others—are important aspects of sibling differentiation for both problematic and adaptive behaviours during middle childhood. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

环境因素对流动儿童歧视知觉的影响及群体态度的调节作用

采用整班联系、自愿参加的方式,选取北京市海淀、朝阳、昌平三个区的1350名流动儿童为被试,采用歧视知觉问卷、家庭社会经济地位问卷、班级环境气氛量表以及群体态度测验,考察家庭经济环境和学校班级环境对流动儿童歧视知觉的影响,并进一步探讨群体态度对它们关系的影响作用。结果表明:(1)家庭社会经济地位、老师支持和同学支持对于个体和群体歧视知觉具有显著的负向影响,同时,班级内聚力对于个体歧视知觉、满意程度对于群体歧视知觉也存在显著的负向影响。(2)同学支持对于个体歧视知觉的负向预测作用更为重要,老师支持则对群体歧视知觉的负向预测作用更为重要。(3)对于群体态度不同的流动儿童,环境因素对其个体和群体歧视知觉的作用存在一定差异。在个体歧视知觉方面,同学支持是态度中立组和态度偏城市儿童组的最佳预测因素,班级内聚力则是态度偏流动儿童组的最佳预测因素;在群体歧视知觉方面,老师支持对于群体态度不同组均表现出最为重要的预测作用。     

Is It What You Do,or When You Do It? The Roles of Contingency and Similarity in Pro‐Social Effects of Imitation

Being imitated has a wide range of pro‐social effects, but it is not clear how these effects are mediated. Naturalistic studies of the effects of being imitated have not established whether pro‐social outcomes are due to the similarity and/or the contingency between the movements performed by the actor and those of the imitator. Similarity is often assumed to be the active ingredient, but we hypothesized that contingency might also be important, as it produces positive affect in infants and can be detected by phylogenetically ancient mechanisms of associative learning. We manipulated similarity and contingency between performed and observed actions in a computerized task. Similarity had no positive effects; however, contingency resulted in greater enjoyment of the task, reported closeness to others, and helping behavior. These results suggest that the pro‐social effects of being imitated may rely on associative mechanisms.     

Some Personality Predictors of Tolerance to Human Diversity: The Roles of Openness,Agreeableness, and Empathy

The aim of this study was to determine the most salient predictors of tolerance to human diversity. A total of 118 individuals (M = 32.93 years, standard deviation = 13.80) responded to dilemma‐like stories involving holding prejudicial beliefs (beliefs), talking about them (speech) and acting on them (acts). Participants also completed the openness and agreeableness scales from the Big Five Inventory and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Differences in tolerance judgements were found to be related to differences in personality characteristics. Results showed that openness and agreeableness were predictors of tolerance in the belief dimension, whereas the most salient predictor of tolerance in the speech and act dimensions was empathic concern, which also mediated the relationships between agreeableness and tolerance for these dimensions. These findings are not unexpected because holding intolerant beliefs is inconsistent with having an open mind, and intolerant speech and actions are inconsistent with pro‐social behaviour, of which tolerance is arguably one form.     

Individual contributory factors in teacher stress: The role of achievement striving and occupational commitment

Workplace stress and its impact upon retention levels are becoming an increasing concern within the teaching profession ( Brown, Davis, & Johnson, 2002 ; Jarvis, 2002 ). Research has largely focused upon the effects of environmental factors, whilst noting that it is the interplay between the individual and the environment which may hold the key to understanding this problem ( Cox, 1978 ; Parkes, 1994 ). Identifying individual contributory factors is essential in understanding why, under the same environmental conditions, some people suffer much greater levels of stress than others. This study examined the influence of Type A behaviour, personal achievement strivings, occupational commitment, gender and nature/experience of teaching on perceived workplace stress within the teaching profession (N = 95). It was predicted that perceived stress would be strongest amongst those reporting higher levels of these factors. A multiple regression analysis indicated that there was a positive relationship between Type A behaviour, personal achievement strivings, and perceived stress. The relationship between perceived stress and occupational commitment, however, was found to be negative. The possible explanations for these findings, and potential implications, are discussed. Future research plans are outlined for exploring the relationships between these individual contributory factors and environmental stressors.     

Implications of Psychosocial Factors for Diabetes Outcomes among Children with Type 1 Diabetes: A Review

We adopt a risk and resistance framework to review the literature on the psychosocial factors that influence diabetes outcomes—specifically self‐care behavior (blood glucose monitoring, diet, exercise, insulin administration) and glycemic control. We examine both personal and social/environmental risk and resistance factors. We conclude by suggesting conceptual and methodological directions for future research. Conceptually, we suggest that researchers examine the synergy among variables that cut across domains, mechanisms linking psychosocial factors to diabetes outcomes, and the impact of goals on health. Methodologically, we suggest that researchers examine age, gender, and race as moderator variables; utilize momentary data collection technology; and employ more sophisticated longitudinal analyses.