Examination of relationships among trait-like individual differences, state-like individual differences, and learning performance

Several authors (e.g., J.T. Austin & H.J. Klein, 1996; R. Kanfer, 1990b, 1992) have urged researchers to examine comprehensive models of distal individual differences as predictors of proximal motivational processes and performance. Two field studies in an academic setting tested a model of relationships among trait-like individual differences (cognitive ability, general self-efficacy, and goal orientation), state-like individual differences (state anxiety, task-specific self-efficacy, and goals), and learning performance. Most hypothesized relationships among these constructs received support when tested on 2 samples, when examining different performance episodes, and when using different goal orientation and state-anxiety measures. In general, state-like individual differences were found to mediate the relationships between trait-like individual differences and learning performance. Implications of these results are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.     

A meta-analytic examination of the goal orientation nomological net

The authors present an empirical review of the literature concerning trait and state goal orientation (GO). Three dimensions of GO were examined: learning, prove performance, and avoid performance along with presumed antecedents and proximal and distal consequences of these dimensions. Antecedent variables included cognitive ability, implicit theory of intelligence, need for achievement, self-esteem, general self-efficacy, and the Big Five personality characteristics. Proximal consequences included state GO, task-specific self-efficacy, self-set goal level, learning strategies, feedback seeking, and state anxiety. Distal consequences included learning, academic performance, task performance, and job performance. Generally speaking, learning GO was positively correlated, avoid performance GO was negatively correlated, and prove performance GO was uncorrelated with these variables. Consistent with theory, state GO tended to have stronger relationships with the distal consequences than did trait GO. Finally, using a meta-correlation matrix, the authors found that trait GO predicted job performance above and beyond cognitive ability and personality. These results demonstrate the value of GO to organizational researchers.     

Goal orientation and ability: interactive effects on self-efficacy,performance, and knowledge

This study examined the direct relationship of goal orientation--and the interaction of goal orientation and cognitive ability--with self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge in a learning context. The authors argue that whether a particular type of goal orientation is adaptive or not adaptive depends on individuals' cognitive ability. Consistent with previous research, learning orientation was positively related to self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge, whereas performance orientation was negatively related to performance only. The interactions between goal orientation and ability also supported several hypotheses. As expected, learning orientation was generally adaptive for high-ability individuals but had no effect for low-ability individuals. In contrast, the effects of performance orientation were contingent on both individuals' level of cognitive ability and the outcome examined.     

Effects of test anxiety on motor learning: The processing efficiency hypothesis

Abstract

The hypothesis that, under test (stress) conditions, high trait-anxious individuals invest extra processing resources to reach motor learning levels similar to those of low-anxious individuals was investigated. A transfer procedure (practice trial, rest interval, and transfer trial) was employed to analyse motor learning effects. In Experiment 1, a secondary task (click detection) was used to measure the extra processing resources expenditure on motor learning during the practice trial. Neither motor performance in the transfer trial nor secondary task performance differed as a function of test condition or anxiety trait. A critical analysis of the secondary task paradigm suggested that it was not sensitive enough to reflect the amount of processing capacity expended on the primary motor tasks. In Experiment 2, subjects performed a loading task (verbal shadowing of sentences) concurrently with the motor tasks during the practice trial to prevent extra resources from being allocated to motor learning. Results showed that anxiety trait was associated to performance time increments on the high-demanding motor tasks in the transfer trial. A plausible explanation is that anxiety impairs learning because it reduces the efficiency of processing. An alternative interpretation, concerning an ability deficit of high trait-anxious individuals, is discussed.     

Mastery goal orientation and cognitive ability effects on performance in learner‐guided training

To conserve resources, organizations are increasingly turning to learner‐guided training methods in which workers are given control over when, how, and what they cover in the learning process. However, the impact of individual differences such as goal orientation and cognitive ability has not been adequately addressed in learner‐guided training. This study seeks to advance our knowledge of how these differences affect performance through previously unexplored pathways. Specifically, we examined the indirect effects of mastery goal orientation and cognitive ability on post‐training performance in a learner‐directed training context. Findings indicate that off‐task thoughts mediate the positive effect of mastery goal orientation on post‐training performance, while declarative knowledge mediates the positive effect of cognitive ability on post‐training performance.     

Team-level goal orientation: an emergent state and its relationships with team inputs,process, and outcomes

Building on recent efforts to extend the concept of goal orientation to teams, we identify team-level goal orientation as an emergent state, distinct from static trait goal orientations of team members. We reinforce this distinction by developing and testing hypotheses about team inputs, processes, and outcomes as determinants of the development of team goal orientation over time. We test our hypotheses with longitudinal data from 230 participants on 64 teams engaged in a management simulation. We find that team members’ trait goal orientations affect the team’s state goal orientation, but only in the early stages of team functioning. Team process and interim outcomes drive changes in team state goal orientation.     

情绪设计对多媒体学习的影响

通过两个实验探讨多媒体学习中情绪设计对学习者情绪、认知过程和学习结果的影响。实验1将内部情绪设计与外部情绪诱发两种方式结合起来,探讨多媒体学习环境中不同方式诱发的积极情绪对学习的影响。实验2进一步聚焦于内部情绪设计,考察颜色和拟人化这两个特定的情绪设计元素对学习者情绪和学习的影响。结果发现:(1)积极的外部情绪诱发和内部情绪设计可以诱发积极情绪,并促进学习迁移。(2)对学习材料进行内部积极情绪设计可以诱发学习者积极情绪,增强学习者的学习动机,降低学习者感知到的学习材料的难度,并促进学习迁移。其中,彩色设计可以诱发学习者积极情绪,但拟人化只有与彩色结合才能诱发学习者积极情绪;在拟人化条件下,彩色设计可以增强学习者学习动机;彩色设计可降低学习者对学习材料感知到的难度;彩色和拟人化都可以促进学习迁移。     

The relationship between learning goal orientation,goal setting,and performance: a longitudinal study

In an educational setting, we examined the relationship of learning goal orientation with goal setting and performance over time. At the first time point, we assessed levels of trait learning goal orientation and asked participants to set performance goals. At each follow‐up time point, we reported to participants their current course grade and allowed them to revise their goals. Learning goal orientation was associated with both setting higher goals and maintaining higher performance over time. Additionally, the relationship of learning goal orientation and performance was found to be mediated by goal setting.     

Trait anxiety,stress, and learning a test of Saltz's hypothesis

Behavioral predictions from Saltz's, Spence's, and Spielberger's interpretations of trait anxiety were tested in a complex verbal learning task. Fifty-three high-anxious and 52 low-anxious male college students were randomly distributed to test conditions of failure-stress, pain-stress, or neutral instructions. The learning data revealed that high-anxious-failure and low-anxious-pain Ss were disrupted and supported Saltz's hypothesis; self-reported anxiety (A-State scale, STAI) was observed only in high-anxious-failure Ss and supported Spielberger's theory of the arousal of state anxiety as a function of trait anxiety. However, the contradiction between self-reported anxiety and learning behavior in low-anxious-pain Ss indicated that the verbal report of these Ss was an inaccurate or insensitive index of arousal.     

Visual feedback,movement learning and the representation of movement

Two experiments on movement learning are reported where the orientation of a visual curve on a graphics terminal, defining a relatively complex arm movement, was either orthogonal to or compatible with the direction of the required movement. In addition, individual differences in spatial orientation and visualization abilities were correlated with motor performance. Results in both experiments showed that equivalent amounts of learning occurred in the two visual conditions. However, during transfer trials to the opposite condition, virtually no transfer occurred for the compatible group when they performed in the orthogonal condition whereas there was tranfer when the orthogonal group performed in the compatible condition. The results supported the idea that very early in learning the orthogonal orientation of visual curve promoted the development of an orientation processing stage which facilitated transrer performance of the orthogonal group. Integrating these results with the past literature on movement learning led to the notion that the orientation information processing stage can be considered a cognitive system that interacts with the image of the act. Finally, contrary to expectations, spatial orientation ability failed to account for any performance while spatial visualization ability moderately correlated with performance.     

Gender Differences in Coping Styles of Chinese Military Officers Undergoing Intensive Training

This study investigated gender differences in anxiety and coping styles under the stress of intense military training. We surveyed Chinese female (n = 470) and male (n = 379) military officers who were surveyed during the third month of a 10-month intensive training program. Results indicated that state and trait anxiety were highly correlated in both women and men. In general, female officers had higher levels of anxiety, greater negative coping tendencies, and less perceived self-efficacy than their male counterparts. When compared with the norm, both women and men had significantly more positive coping strategies. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed factors that influenced male and female state anxiety. Avoidance, which was chosen by women more often than men, in general was less useful for female officers. The most common positive coping style for female officers was problem solving, whereas for men it was help seeking. We suggested that even female officers with lower mental health levels than their male counterparts made active cognitive changes to their coping styles when undergoing intense military training.     

考前焦虑、成就目标和考试成绩关系的研究

该研究以238名参与者为样本,对其考前焦虑、成就目标及高考成绩进行了考察,采用相关分析和回归分析技术探讨了三者之间的关系.结果表明,高考生的焦虑水平远远高于一般正常人;考前焦虑与掌握趋近目标显著负相关,与掌握回避目标和成绩回避目标显著正相关.掌握趋近目标和掌握回避目标是状态焦虑的预测变量,而特质焦虑的预测变量同时包括四种目标定向;高考总分和英语与考前焦虑显著负相关,成就目标与高考成绩的相关较弱.     

学步期焦虑影响5岁幼儿创造力：一般认知和掌握动机的链式中介作用

儿童早期焦虑是一种常见的心理卫生问题, 影响个体中央执行功能的发展, 而个体中央执行功能所表现的认知能力的发展通常反映出个体创造性问题解决的过程。本研究采用追踪研究设计, 探讨了学步期儿童焦虑对其学龄前期创造力的长时影响及其潜在作用机制。来自北京的96个家庭(男孩42名, 女孩54名)参与了本研究。在儿童1岁和2岁时, 母亲填写中国版《12~36月龄幼儿情绪社会性评估量表》和家庭基本信息调查表。在儿童2岁时, 采用贝利婴幼儿发展量表评估幼儿的一般认知能力; 在儿童3岁时, 母亲报告儿童掌握动机情况; 在儿童5岁时, 采用托兰斯活动与动作创造性思维测验评估儿童的创造力。研究结果表明：(1)儿童学步期焦虑(广泛性焦虑和分离焦虑)可以显著负向预测其5岁时的创造力; (2)一般认知能力和掌握动机在儿童学步期焦虑(广泛性焦虑和分离焦虑)和学前期创造力之间的链式中介作用成立; (3)儿童学步期广泛性焦虑还可以通过直接负向预测掌握动机, 从而对其5岁创造力的表现产生消极影响。     

The trichotomous model and investment in learning to prepare for a sport test: A mediational analysis

Background: Contemporary views on motivation suggest that the approach‐avoidance achievement goals conceptualisation — namely the trichotomous model — can shed light on the important issue of student motivation. Aims: To test the predictive value of the trichotomous model on the investment in learning a sport task for test preparation, and to validate a model which included a set of psychological processes (i.e., state anxiety and competence valuation) which mediate the relationship between the three goals (i.e., performance‐approach, performance‐avoidance, and mastery goals) and test preparation. The study was designed to investigate the direct and mediational effects of three experimental goal conditions on the time in which pupils prepared for a sport test. Sample: French male school pupils (N = 75). Pupils were aged 13‐15 years and attended schools in southern France. Method: Pupils prepared themselves for a sport task with a 5‐minute period of training, and performed in one of three experimental conditions to which they were randomly assigned: a performance goal with a positive outcome focus (performance‐approach), a performance goal with a negative outcome focus (performance‐avoidance), or a mastery goal. Results: Pupils in the performance‐avoidance group reported higher state anxiety and lower competence valuation than those in the performance‐approach and mastery groups, and this psychological state was associated with less time taken to prepare for the test. Conclusion: School pupils placed in an examination preparation context that elicits a performance goal with a negative outcome focus (performance‐avoidance) show motivational deficits which manifest themselves in less time spent practising. The trichotomous model appears to be valid for the study of motivational processes in school physical education.     

The Effects of a Learning‐Goal Orientation Training on Self‐Regulation: A Field Experiment Among Unemployed Job Seekers

Finding reemployment after job loss is a complex and difficult task that requires extensive motivation and self‐regulation. This study aimed to examine whether improving unemployed job seekers’ cognitive self‐regulation can increase reemployment probabilities. Based on the goal orientation literature, we developed a learning‐goal orientation (LGO) training, which focused on goal setting aimed at improving rather than demonstrating competences and creating a climate of development and improvement. We predicted that the LGO training would influence peoples’ goal orientation towards job seeking, which in turn would relate to learning from failure, strategy awareness, and self‐efficacy, leading to job‐search intentions, resulting in increased reemployment status. Using a 2‐group quasi‐experimental design with 223 unemployed job seekers, we found support for these predictions, except for self‐efficacy. The results suggest that an LGO training is a promising tool to improve self‐regulation in and effectiveness of job search.     

中学生成就目标相关因素的发展研究

探索了影响中学生成就目标各因素间的相互关系及其对学业成绩的影响,并就此提出一个中学生学业活动的简洁模式。(1)中学生的认知参与和能力知觉、成就目标之间极显著正相关,学业焦虑和认知参与、能力知觉、成就目标之间显著负相关;两成就目标间的相关不显著;(2)能力知觉、认知参与、学业焦虑是学业成绩的有效预测因子。     

工作记忆训练及对数学能力的迁移作用

工作记忆缺陷会影响个体数学能力发展。通过记忆策略、广度、刷新、转换等功能的工作记忆训练,可以改善个体认知功能。然而,工作记忆训练对个体的阅读、数学、流体智力等方面的远迁移效果并不一致。研究表明,工作记忆训练可以改善数感、视觉空间能力、推理能力等数学一般技能;也会通过改善语音工作记忆以及空间能力促进数学计算能力,或者通过改善中央执行系统,提升数学问题表征、模式识别、解题迁移、策略选择等复杂的过程,从而促进数学问题解决能力。因此,区分不同数学任务的认知过程,可以获得工作记忆训练对数学能力迁移效果的进一步证据。今后,神经影像学的证据或许也是未来工作记忆训练对数学能力提高的又一佐证。     

工作记忆训练及对数学能力的迁移作用

工作记忆缺陷会影响个体数学能力发展。通过记忆策略、广度、刷新、转换等功能的工作记忆训练,可以改善个体认知功能。然而,工作记忆训练对个体的阅读、数学、流体智力等方面的远迁移效果并不一致。研究表明,工作记忆训练可以改善数感、视觉空间能力、推理能力等数学一般技能;也会通过改善语音工作记忆以及空间能力促进数学计算能力,或者通过改善中央执行系统,提升数学问题表征、模式识别、解题迁移、策略选择等复杂的过程,从而促进数学问题解决能力。因此,区分不同数学任务的认知过程,可以获得工作记忆训练对数学能力迁移效果的进一步证据。今后,神经影像学的证据或许也是未来工作记忆训练对数学能力提高的又一佐证。     

An experimental investigation of the effect of worry on responses to a discrimination learning task

The current study examined the impact of both the tendency to worry (trait worry) and the process of worry (state worry) on subsequent behavioral responding in a schedule discrimination learning task. High and low trait worriers were randomly assigned to a state worry or relaxation incubation condition and completed a test of executive functioning and a dual contingency learning task that utilized neutral discriminative cues over the course of 2 contingency phases. Although state and trait worry did not impact executive functioning, the state worry condition was associated with diminished sensitivity to learning task contingencies over the course of the first contingency learning trials in comparison to the relaxation condition. This relationship was unique to the state worry condition above and beyond shared variance with subjective anxiety level. Results suggest that state worry may lead to a decrement in selective behavioral responding to neutral discriminative cues in the environment. The findings suggest that the process of worry may lead to less adaptive responding to neutral cues and interfere with adaptive behaviors, which may thereby contribute to and maintain anxiety.     

Distinguishing between learning and motivation in behavioral tests of the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality

According to Gray's (1973) Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), a Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and a Behavioral Activation System (BAS) mediate effects of goal conflict and reward on behavior. BIS functioning has been linked with individual differences in trait anxiety and BAS functioning with individual differences in trait impulsivity. In this article, it is argued that behavioral outputs of the BIS and BAS can be distinguished in terms of learning and motivation processes and that these can be operationalized using the Signal Detection Theory measures of response-sensitivity and response-bias. In Experiment 1, two measures of BIS-reactivity predicted increased response-sensitivity under goal conflict, whereas one measure of BAS-reactivity predicted increased response-sensitivity under reward. In Experiment 2, two measures of BIS-reactivity predicted response-bias under goal conflict, whereas a measure of BAS-reactivity predicted motivation response-bias under reward. In both experiments, impulsivity measures did not predict criteria for BAS-reactivity as traditionally predicted by RST.