The Need for a More Effective Science of Cultural Practices

Behavior analysis has produced a robust theoretical analysis of the contingencies involved in cultural evolution. Yet, thus far, the empirical yield of this work remains quite limited. With this paper, I attempt to provide specific examples of the ways to advance an experimental analysis of the contingencies involved in cultural evolution. I begin with a review of the theoretical analyses developed by behavior analysts and other contextually oriented scientists. Next, I submit that, if the goal of our science is both predicting and influencing cultural phenomena, we must produce experimental analyses of the impact of meta-contingencies on organizations’ practices. There is no more pressing reason for doing this than the threat of climate change posed by the continuing growth in human use of fossil fuels. Therefore, the paper provides an analysis of the contingencies influencing organizational practices now affecting continued use of fossil fuels and the contingencies for organizations seeking to prevent their use. One concrete step to advance a science of cultural change relevant to climate change would be to create a database of organizations that are promoting vs. working to prevent fossil fuel consumption and the consequences that seem to maintain their practices. I call for experimental analysis of the impact of altering consequences for these practices and for experimental analyses of interventions intended to change the norms, values, and behavior of organizational leaders who can influence fossil fuel consumption. I then discuss the role of prosocial behavior and values in affecting behavior relevant to reducing fossil fuel consumption because the empirical evidence shows that prosociality favors more “green” behavior. Recent advances in prevention research have identified interventions to promote prosociality, but we need experimental analyses of how advocacy organizations can be more effective in getting these interventions widely adopted.     

Counteracting Media's Thin-Body Ideal for Adolescent Girls: Informing Is More Effective Than Warning

The present study investigated whether information or warnings about depictions of the thin-body ideal in mass media are effective in counteracting media-induced negative body perceptions of adolescent girls. Based on counter-advertising and reactance theories, our hypotheses were tested in a 3 (weight labels: information vs. warning vs. no label) × 2 (media models' body shape: thin vs. normal weight) × 2 (self-esteem: lower vs. higher) design (N = 178). Body dissatisfaction, objectified body consciousness, and body comparison with media models served as dependent variables. Pretested media models were systematically combined with various textual weight labels and presented on the front page of a magazine targeted toward girls. The results indicated that a simple information label that provided the weight status of thin media models induced less negative body perceptions in adolescent girls when compared with the use of warning labels or images only. Especially, girls with lower self-esteem then exhibited lower levels of body dissatisfaction and objectified body consciousness. When compared with exposure to images only, the warning labels had little effect on body perceptions by adolescent girls. Thus, informing is more effective than warning in counteracting the undesired effects of the thin-body ideal promoted by the media.     

Developing Effective Prevention Services for the Real World: A Prevention Service Development Model

A Prevention Service Development Model (PSDM) is presented as an approach to develop prevention programs that are both effective and that are readily adopted for implementation in community settings. The model is an integration of concepts and methods from two fields, prevention research and marketing research as applied to new service development. Questions that are posed at each stage of the PSDM are described. Studies from the development of two preventive interventions are presented to illustrate research at several of the stages of the model.     

Can Research on Women Be More Effective in Shaping Policy?

The potential usefulness of research on women's issues to the policymaking process is discussed in the context of the arguments both for and against trying to increase the policy utility of social science research in general. J. Weiss's concepts of „intrinsic,”„intellectual,” and „political usefulness” are presented and applied to specific policy issues of importance to women. The paper examines ways in which researchers could enhance the policy relevance of their research and ways in which the psychology establishment could encourage the development of policy-relevant research. The middle section of the paper describes the large array of roles and settings for social scientists in the federal policy structure, treating the executive, legislative, and judicial branches in turn. The history of and dilemmas created by the „Brandeis brief” are presented. The last section of the paper presents some important policy issues affecting women in the next five years and illustrates how one particular area of research could be made more useful.     

More Than Weighting Cognitive Importance: A Dual-Process Model of Issue Framing Effects

Issue frames in policy discourse and news reporting regularly influence citizens' political opinions. Yet, we only have a limited understanding of how and among whom these framing effects occur. I propose a dual-process model of issue framing effects arguing that we must understand mediators of framing (the how question) in connection with individual-level moderators of framing (the whom question). Experimental results show that issue framing affects opinion through different psychological processes depending on who the receiver of the frame is. Among the moderately politically aware or those having weak political values, framing effects were mediated through processes of changing importance of considerations as well as changing content of considerations. Among the highly aware, only the importance change process mediated framing effects, while there were no framing effects among those least aware or those having strong values.     

Making Group Brainstorming More Effective: Recommendations From an Associative Memory Perspective

Much literature on group brainstorming has found it to be less effective than individual brainstorming. However, a cognitive perspective suggests that group brainstorming could be an effective technique for generating creative ideas. Computer simulations of an associative memory model of idea generation in groups suggest that groups have the potential to generate ideas that individuals brainstorming alone are less likely to generate. Exchanging ideas by means of writing or computers, alternating solitary and group brainstorming, and using heterogeneous groups appear to be useful approaches for enhancing group brainstorming.     

How Chaos and Complexity Theory Can Help Counselors to Be More Effective

Chaos and complexity theory can help counselors to assist clients in new and unique ways. Chaos and complexity theory do not need to replace other counseling theories but can provide an alternative view. Using chaos theory in counseling requires, however, a revaluation of counselors' assumptions about the world, particularly about linearity, prediction, and control. This article uses a case study to illustrate how counselors can use chaos and complexity theory in their work with clients. This theory can offer an alternative framework to assist counselors in conceptualizing their clients and their practice.     

情绪调节策略：认知重评优于表达抑制

Gross提出情绪调节产生于情绪发生的过程中,主要有两种普遍的调节策略：认知重评和表达抑制。本文探讨了这两种策略在情绪反应和神经机制上的异同,以及二者对认知活动造成的不同影响。与表达抑制相比,认知重评能更好地降低情绪体验,减少生理反应和交感神经系统的激活,降低杏仁核的激活水平,并对认知活动不产生影响;而表达抑制虽然能够降低情绪行为,但生理反应和交感神经系统的激活却增强,而杏仁核激活水平并未降低,且干扰认知活动的完成。神经病理学的证据进一步表明,相较于表达抑制,认知重评能更好地调节情绪,有利于人们的身心健康。     

Making Gender Comparisons More Meaningful: A Call for More Attention to Social Context

We challenge researchers to consider sex and gender as a marker for possible social contextual differences. Disappointed by both philosophical and empirical attempts to find coherence in research making gender comparisons, we selectively review studies showing both context-specific similarities between women and men where overall comparisons found differences as well as context-specific differences where general patterns of similarity existed. These examples cut across embedded levels of social context, ranging from those immediately proximal to the individual (interpersonal) to organizational and broad societal structures. They suggest that seemingly identical contexts can have sweepingly different impacts on women and men and that effective social interventions be gender-sensitive.     

The Scientist-Practitioner Model: Now More Than Ever

The scientist-practitioner model has been fundamental to the field of professional psychology for over 50 years. Although other training models have been offered in an attempt to improve training or meet other needs, we view many of the changes suggested by these models as consistent with the original intent of scientist-practitioner training. We argue that the reciprocal effects of science and practice within this model, if appropriately integrated, remain an excellent fit for integrating science and practice and enhancing the quality of both the practice and science of psychology. We address some of the problems with how the model has been implemented and offer recommendations for ways to enhance science and practice integration. Finally, we describe some of the mechanisms we have used to put these principles into practice in our counseling psychology training program.     

A Computationally More Efficient and More Accurate Stepwise Approach for Correcting for Sampling Error and Measurement Error

Over the last decade or two, multilevel structural equation modeling (ML-SEM) has become a prominent modeling approach in the social sciences because it allows researchers to correct for sampling and measurement errors and thus to estimate the effects of Level 2 (L2) constructs without bias. Because the latent variable modeling software Mplus uses maximum likelihood (ML) by default, many researchers in the social sciences have applied ML to obtain estimates of L2 regression coefficients. However, one drawback of ML is that covariance matrices of the predictor variables at L2 tend to be degenerate, and thus, estimates of L2 regression coefficients tend to be rather inaccurate when sample sizes are small. In this article, I show how an approach for stabilizing covariance matrices at L2 can be used to obtain more accurate estimates of L2 regression coefficients. A simulation study is conducted to compare the proposed approach with ML, and I illustrate its application with an example from organizational research.     

智力风格的三维模型:一种更为综合的认知风格理论

智力风格的三维模型是Li-fang Zhang和Robert J.Sternberg在风格这个研究领域最近提出的一个整合模型.该模型基于Sternberg心理自我管理理论,并结合以往的风格研究,提出了智力风格的概念,把风格分为三种基本类型,而且认为,大部分风格是价值负荷的;是集特质和状态为一体的,但是大部分是可调整的,所以更倾向于状态性;并且具有跨理论的重叠,但也有其独特性.文章对智力风格三维模型的产生背景、理论来源及主要观点进行了介绍,并探讨了该模型的意义.     

The 1.5 Criterion Model of Creativity: Where Less Is More,More or Less

We argue that the future of creativity research should focus on the dual goals of the development of individuals with great creative genius as well as the enhancement of creative activity in society in general. To achieve these goals, we need basic research that will help us better understand the fundamental nature of creativity. We describe an approach to creativity that emphasizes novelty over utility.     

计划缺失设计——通过有意缺失让研究更高效

缺失值是社会科学研究中非常普遍的现象。全息极大似然估计和多重插补是目前处理缺失值最有效的方法。计划缺失设计利用特殊的实验设计有意产生缺失值, 再用现代的缺失值处理方法来完成统计分析, 获得无偏的统计结果。计划缺失设计可用于横断面调查减少(或增加)问卷长度和纵向调查减少测量次数, 也可用于提高测量有效性。常用的计划缺失设计有三式设计和两种方法测量。     

不同呈现方式的网页广告的眼动研究

选择25名视力正常的大学生,用眼动仪记录他们浏览不同呈现方式、不同位置的网页广告的眼动过程。结果发现：1．对于不同呈现方式的网页广告,从记忆成绩看：彩色组显著优于黑白组,两者与动画组没有显著差异;从眼动指标看：动画组和彩色组的注视次数和注视时的明显高于黑白组。2．网页广告的位置对被试的记忆成绩与眼动模式有一定的影响,表现为上部与中部注视次数增加,注视时间长。记忆成绩也表现为差异显著,中部与上部的记忆效果好。     

认知能量模型--一种更为综合的ADHD认知理论

认知能量模型是J.A.Sergeant等人提出的一种解释ADHD缺陷机制的综合性实证理论。该模型基于信息加工理论,结合了状态因素理论和几种相对成熟的模型,尝试对ADHD提供一种较为理想的解释。本文在此对该模型的基本观点、模型结构及其有关的实证研究进行介绍,并探讨认知能量模型对于未来ADHD研究的启示。