Multiple Determinants of Framing Referents in Tax Reporting and Compliance

Prospect theory's implications for tax reporting have been investigated primarily by examining taxpayers' risk preferences surrounding two potential reference points: their current cash position and their expectations regarding payments and/or refunds due. Evidence has generally supported the role of cash position in framing reporting decisions while failing to support a similar role for expectations. However, most research examining the role of expectations in framing risky choice has experimentally assigned expectations to decision makers. If expectations become meaningful referents via adaptation, the construct validity of experimentally-assigned expectations is suspect. Using participants' own prior tax filings to determine expectations, we find evidence that expectations and cash position jointly frame the filing decision. Further, consistent with adaptation serving as the mechanism through which expectations frame reporting preferences, we find that the severity of the framing effect attributed to expectations was significantly mitigated when time to adapt to variances from those expectations was allowed.     

现阶段我国城市居民消费心理预期的性质与特点

采用自编《消费心理预期问卷》对1097名城市被试进行了研究,结果表明：1．《消费心理预期问卷》具有较高的信度和效度;2．消费心理预期是由五个因素构成的：宏观经济形势预期、个人生活与收入预期、政府经济政策预期、物价走势预期和突发事件预防预期;3．现阶段,我国城市居民的消费心理预期普遍比较消极．甚至悲观;4．影响消费心理预期的因素是多维的,其中?肖费者的性别、年龄、学历、工作单位和所在城市等变量都是直接影响心理预期的一些重要因素,即不同性别、年龄、学历、工作单位和城市的消费者对未来存在着不同的心理预期。     

Role of expectations in sentence integration

Three experiments examined the role of causal expectations in sentence integration. Subjects read narratives that did or did not elicit strong expectations about upcoming events (high-expectation vs. low-expectation texts). Subjects were faster to judge a target sentence to be unrelated when it followed a high-expectation text than when it followed a low-expectation text. Subjects were slower to read an unimportant, expectation-violating sentence embedded in a high-expectation text. Subjects were faster both to read and to judge an expectation-fulfilling target sentence when it followed a high-expectation text. Three models of the generation and use of expectations are considered. The results support a model in which expectations are generated selectively. Once generated, expectations become the focus of upcoming sentence integration processes such that correct expectations help and incorrect expectations interfere. A third experiment found no evidence that expectations took the form of highly specific predictions.     

亲子间教育期望差异对小学生情感幸福感的影响:学业成绩和学业自我效能感的中介作用

以891名河北省衡水市某小学4~6年级学生为研究对象，采用问卷调查的方式，考察了亲子间教育期望差异对小学生情感幸福感的影响，以及学业成绩和学业自我效能感的多重中介作用。结果发现：（1）亲子间教育期望差异影响小学生情感幸福感，与感知到的父母教育期望和自我教育期望一致相比，当感知到的父母教育期望高于自我教育期望时，小学生的积极情感水平更低而消极情感水平更高；（2）学业成绩和学业自我效能感在“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”这一差异方向与积极情感间起部分中介作用，在“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”与消极情感间起完全中介作用。具体而言，“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”可直接影响积极情感，还可通过学业成绩和学业自我效能感的链式中介作用以及学业自我效能感的独立中介作用间接影响积极情感；同时，“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”可通过学业成绩和学业自我效能感的链式中介作用、学业自我效能感的独立中介作用以及学业成绩的独立中介作用影响消极情感。     

Optimizing preoperative expectations in cardiac surgery patients is moderated by level of disability: the successful development of a brief psychological intervention

Patients’ expectations have shown to be a major psychological predictor of health outcome in cardiac surgery patients. However, it is unclear whether patients’ expectations can be optimized prior to surgery. This study evaluates the development of a brief psychological intervention focusing on the optimization of expectations and its effect on change in patients’ expectations prior to cardiac surgery. Ninety patients scheduled for coronary artery bypass graft were randomly assigned to (1) standard medical care, (2) additional expectation manipulation intervention (EMI), and (3) additional attention control group. Therapists’ fidelity to intervention manuals and patients satisfaction with the intervention were assessed for both active intervention conditions. Patients’ expectations about post-surgical disability, treatment control, personal control, and disease duration were assessed before and after the psychological intervention. Demographical, medical, and psychosocial characteristics and disability were assessed at baseline. Treatment fidelity and patient satisfaction was very high in both intervention conditions. Only patients receiving EMI developed higher personal control expectations and longer (more realistic) expectations of disease duration. The effect of intervention group on patients’ disability expectations and patients’ personal control expectations was moderated by patient’s level of disability. EMI patients with low to moderate disability developed positive expectations whereas patients with high disability did not. This study shows the successful development of a short psychological intervention that was able to modify patients’ expectations, especially in those with low to moderate disability. Given the robust association of expectations and surgery outcome, such an intervention might offer the opportunity to enhance patients’ health following cardiac surgery.     

SEX DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS

This study is an investigation of the effects of occupational sex-dominance on sex differences in occupational performance expectations. Female and male college students indicated their expectations for their own performance— self expectations—and that of either a "typical" male, female, or male and female person— comparison person expectations —for six occupations varying according to perceived sex-dominance. Additionally, the performance expectations were reported under anticipated private or public conditions. Results indicated that in contrast to males, females reported lower expectations for themselves alone and lower expectations for themselves in comparison to another person for male-dominated occupations. However, unlike males, females reported higher expectations for themselves and for themselves in comparison to others for female-dominated fields. Occupational sex dominance appeared to influence females' performance expectations, while males' expectations were similar across fields varying in sex-dominance. Neither the sex of the comparison person nor the anticipated privacy of the expectations were found to be related to the sex differences in performance expectations.     

Men,women, and money: Exploring the role of gender,gender-linkage of college major and career-information sources in salary expectations

Research focused on salary expectations consistently reports gender-based differences in expectations for entry and peak career. Although a number of variables (e.g., value placed on work-facets, fair pay standards) have been found to mediate the relationship between gender and salary expectations, little research has attempted to assess how expectations may be formed. Based on suggestions by Martin (1989) and social comparison theory, we examined the role that sources of career information (e.g., professors, family) play in shaping college students' salary expectations. Results suggest: (1) differences in entry level salary expectations were associated with gender-linkage of college major and differences in peak salary expectations were associated with gender and gender-linkage of college major, (2) women gathered more information from female sources than did men, and men gathered more information from male sources than did women, and (3) career information was not predictive of either entry or peak salary expectations.     

调节定向对新员工期望的影响

新员工在进入企业工作前,会基于已有信息对即将从事的工作产生一定的预期,即新员工期望。期望对行为的影响很大程度上是通过目标设定或自我调节起作用的,因此本研究尝试分析调节定向对新员工期望的影响。通过对480名新员工的问卷调查发现,调节定向对期望的重要性、可能性和确定性都存在影响,这些影响受期望内容的调节:对于与发展和创新相关的期望,促进定向占主导的新员工对其重要性的判断程度高于预防定向占主导的新员工,且当期望的确定性高时,前者对期望可能性的判断程度高于后者;而对于与安全和责任相关的期望却相反,预防定向占主导的新员工对其重要性的判断程度高于促进定向占主导的新员工,且当期望的确定性高时,前者对期望可能性的判断程度高于后者。     

Effects of Resolving to Change One's Own Behavior: Expectations vs. Experience

The “false-hope syndrome” suggests that unrealistic expectations are responsible for the cycle of repeated failure and renewed efforts at self-change characterizing many self-changers. Our hypotheses were that: (1) committing to a particular self-change task would inflate initial expectations, (2) participants would be unsuccessful relative to their expectations, and (3) more elevated expectations would lead to more negative outcomes. Participants were randomly assigned to either increase their physical activity or reduce their stress through meditating or were assigned to a no-change control group. In accordance with Hypotheses 1 and 2, exercise participants had more positive expectations about their resolutions immediately after committing to them, and both exercise and meditation participants were unsuccessful relative to their expectations. With respect to Hypothesis 3, however, having more positive expectations about one's resolution did not predict a worse outcome.     

Educational Expectations and School Achievement of Urban African American Children

The mechanisms used to convey parents' and teachers' educational expectations for the academic achievement of low-income African American children were explored using data from the Chicago Longitudinal Study. A total of 712 children were studied. A model of mediated effects was used to test the processes of influence from parents' and teachers' expectations to sixth-grade outcomes. Children's perceptions of expectations were hypothesized to mediate the effect of expectations to school outcomes. Study findings revealed that these perceptions only partially mediated the effects of expectations to sixth-grade reading and math outcomes, yet added unique independent variance to these outcomes. Prior achievement emerged as a powerful mediator of the effects of early educational intervention and sociodemographic variables to sixth-grade outcomes. These findings suggest a need to further investigate the processes of communicating parent and teacher expectations.     

Consequences of organizational justice expectations in a selection system

This study examined several consequences of applicants' expectations of organizational justice at multiple stages in a selection process. The authors assessed the justice expectations of 1,832 job applicants prior to their participation in a testing process and examined how these expectations influenced their pretest attitudes and intentions as well as their perceptions of the testing process. Results revealed that applicants with higher expectations of justice reported higher levels of pretest motivation and more positive job acceptance and recommendation intentions. Justice expectations were also positively related to applicants' perceptions of justice in the testing process. Results provided some evidence that justice expectations have a moderating influence, such that justice perceptions have a greater influence on applicants' affective and cognitive states when expectations of justice are high. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed in the context of research on organizational justice and applicant perceptions.     

Gender variation in developmental trajectories of educational and occupational expectations and attainment from adolescence to adulthood

Adolescents' future expectations are a potentially important precursor of adult attainment and may illuminate how males and females vary in schooling and work. Thus, this longitudinal study examined gender variation in developmental trajectories of educational and occupational expectations from adolescence to adulthood and in connection to corresponding adult attainment. National data (NELS:88) including individuals aged 14 to 26 and hierarchical linear modeling analyses yielded several findings: Males and females had similar developmental trajectories of educational expectations from adolescence to adulthood with the sample average expecting to attend college. Probabilities of expecting a professional occupation were lower for males than females. Adolescent educational and occupational expectations predicted corresponding attainment in adulthood, although the relationship varied by gender. Males who reported high occupational expectations in adolescence had higher occupational attainment in adulthood compared to males with low occupational expectations, whereas females' adult occupational attainment did not vary by their adolescent occupational expectations. Gender variation in expectations and attainment is discussed in light of historical changes, and future directions of research are proposed.     

The effects of prior expectations and outcome knowledge on polygraph examiners' decisions

The present study deals with the question of whether judgments made by experts working in familiar contexts are affected by prior expectations and beliefs. Two experiments in which prior expectations were manipulated were designed to determine whether and to what extent polygraph examiners are affected by their prior expectations when analyzing and interpreting polygraph charts. Prior expectations affected the examiners' judgments when the polygraph charts did not include clear indications of guilt or innocence, but when the objective physiological evidence included strong indications which clearly contradicted the examiner's expectations, judgments were not affected by these expectations. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.     

First-time parents' expectations about the division of childcare and play

The current study examines violated expectations regarding the division of childcare and play in first-time parents during the initial transition to parenthood. The study's goal was threefold: (a) to compare prenatal expectations with the reported postpartum division of childcare and play, (b) to compare the influence of the reported division versus violated expectations on postpartum relationship satisfaction and depression, and (c) to examine the role of persistent violations of expectations on these outcomes. Couples expecting their first child were interviewed during the third trimester of pregnancy and at 1 and 4 months postpartum. Results indicated both mothers and fathers have unrealistic expectations during pregnancy; interestingly, the direction violation was opposite but converging for mothers and fathers. As found in prior research, mothers experienced unmet expectations with fathers doing less than mothers expected. Fathers, on the other hand, experienced overmet expectations with mothers doing more than fathers expected. Violated expectations were also a stronger predictor of depression and relationship satisfaction than the reported division, although again in opposite directions for mothers and fathers. Unmet expectations were negative for mothers, while overmet expectations with regard to childcare tasks were beneficial for fathers. The one caveat was for fathers' overmet expectations with play; in this case, a mother playing with the baby more than a father expected was related to less relationship satisfaction. A similar pattern of results was found for mothers and fathers with persistent violations. This study highlights the importance of understanding violated expectations in both mothers and fathers, as well as examining play separately from childcare.     

The Effect of Rater Expectations on the Evaluation of a Hypothetical Subordinate

In a laboratory study of the effect of rater expectations on the evaluation of a hypothetical subordinate's performance, 159 undergraduates role played the part of a sales manager who had been given high, low, or no expectations about a subordinates's potential along with hypothetical concrete or abstract performance data. Hypotheses regarding the interaction of performance data and expectations on evaluations were not supported. Although evaluations of the subordinate's performance did not vary across conditions, the student raters recommended larger raises for the subordinate for whom they had low expectations than for the subordinate for whom they had high expectations. The key predictor of a recommended raise appeared to be the extent to which the subordinate met or exceeded rater expectations. These results were reconfirmed with an independent cross-validation sample of 168 subjects.     

Morality and Adult Attachment Style as Predictors of Psychotherapy Process and Outcome Expectations

This study examined whether moral foundations and adult attachment style predict expectations for counseling. Hierarchical regression models were used to analyze self‐report questionnaires of 963 participants. Moral foundations related to harm–care, fairness–reciprocity, and authority–respect were significantly positively related to both process and outcome counseling expectations. Adult attachment anxiety was positively related to outcome expectations, whereas adult attachment avoidance was negatively related to process and outcome expectations. Moral foundations and adult attachment style are important predictors of therapy process and outcome expectations. Implications for practitioners and future research are discussed.     

Modeling college women's perceptions of elite leadership positions with Social Cognitive Career Theory

The utility of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) for predicting college women's interests and goals for positions of elite leadership was examined with 156 undergraduate women at a public university. They completed measures of elite leadership self-efficacy expectations, outcome expectations, interests, and goals. Results supported SCCT as a theoretical framework for understanding internal factors that may contribute to women's elite leadership interests and goals. Self-efficacy and outcome expectations for elite leadership positions related positively to interests and goals for such positions, and self-efficacy and outcome expectations each contributed unique variance to the prediction of elite leadership interests. Outcome expectations partially mediated the relation between elite leadership self-efficacy and interests, interests partially mediated the relation between elite leadership outcome expectations and goals, and the combination of elite leadership interests and outcome expectations completely mediated the relation between self-efficacy for elite leadership positions and elite leadership goals.     

How health motivation moderates the effect of vividness on consumption expectations of indulgent food

The current research examines how the vividness of food depictions affects consumers' consumption expectations of indulgent food items. Through three studies, we found that the level of motivation to be healthy plays a crucial role in determining how vividness impacts their consumption expectations of indulgent food items. Specifically, when consumers are less motivated to be healthy, vividness increases their consumption expectations due to increased attention-driven involvement with the food information. On the other hand, when consumers are motivated to be healthy, vividness is assumed to increase goal conflict, leading to reduced consumption expectations. Importantly, our research also found that the joint effect of vividness and health motivations on consumption expectations is attenuated when the indulgent food items contain healthy ingredients.     

Functioning in the Real World: Using Storytelling to Improve Validity in the Assessment of Executive Functions

Real-world contexts differ in the clarity of expectations for desired responses, as do assessment procedures, ranging along a continuum from maximal conditions that provide well-defined expectations to typical conditions that provide ill-defined expectations. Executive functions guide effective social interactions, but relations between them have not been studied with measures that are matched in the clarity of response expectations. In predicting teacher-rated social competence (SC) from kindergarteners' performance on tasks of executive functions (EFs), we found better model–data fit indexes when both measures were similar in the clarity of response expectations for the child. The maximal EF measure, the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment, presents well-defined response expectations, and the typical EF measure, 5 scales from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), presents ill-defined response expectations (i.e., Abstraction, Perceptual Integration, Cognitive-Experiential Integration, and Associative Thinking). To assess SC under maximal and typical conditions, we used 2 teacher-rated questionnaires, with items, respectively, that emphasize well-defined and ill-defined expectations: the Behavior Rating Inventory: Behavioral Regulation Index and the Social Skills Improvement System: Social Competence Scale. Findings suggest that matching clarity of expectations improves generalization across measures and highlight the usefulness of the TAT to measure EF.     

The moderating roles of personal and social resources on the relationship between dual expectations (for instrumentality and expressiveness) and well-being

The authors examined the roles of self-esteem and perceived social support in moderating the relationship between dual social expectations (instrumentality and expressivity) and well-being. Participants were 166 female and 87 male students in an urban community in the midwestern United States. After the authors controlled for the main effects of instrumental and expressive expectations, social support, as predicted, moderated the relationship between dual expectations and well-being: With higher levels of social support, higher levels of dual expectations were associated with higher levels of well-being; with lower levels of social support, higher levels of dual expectations were associated with lower levels of well-being. Contrary to predictions, however, self-esteem did not moderate the relation between dual expectations and well-being. The discussion focuses on the importance of social resources in enhancing the potential benefits of dual expectations in interpersonal contexts.