The Impact of Parent Empowerment in Children’s Mental Health Services on Parenting Stress

Emotional and behavioral (EB) problems in children are associated with increased perceptions of strain in parenting. Among children receiving services, parenting stress has been linked to initiating services for their children, and may strain the relationship between parent and child. In contrast, parental engagement and empowerment in services is an important quality indicator for positive treatment outcomes. However, no known studies have examined the association between parent empowerment in their child’s services and their perceptions of stress related to parenting a child with significant mental health needs. Further, no studies have explored whether empowerment moderates the relationship between the child’s symptoms and parental perceptions of stress. The current study examined the impact of child EB problems and parent empowerment on parenting stress. Among a sample of 525 parents of children receiving school-based services for disruptive behavior disorders, child EB problems significantly predicted parenting stress. Parent empowerment also correlated with lower parenting stress, as hypothesized. Although parent empowerment was not found to moderate the relationship between child symptomatology and parenting stress, the relationship between parent empowerment and parenting stress differed based on child gender and age. Parent empowerment was associated with lower parenting stress more for parents of females and younger children than for parents of males and older children.     

Parents' and teachers' perceptions of adolescent storm and stress: relations with parenting and teaching styles

The purpose of this study was to determine if parents and teachers differed in their views of adolescent storm and stress, and to examine the relations of these reported perceptions with parenting and teaching behaviors. Subjects were parents and teachers of middle and high school students in three school districts in the Midwest. Storm and stress beliefs were identified as parents' and teachers' perceptions of conflict, moodiness, and risk-taking behavior. Scales assessing classic/conforming and positive adolescent behaviors also were included. Self-report assessments of parenting and teaching were administered as well. Results indicated that whereas both parents and teachers held storm and stress beliefs, teachers maintained stronger perceptions than parents. Teachers also endorsed higher classic/conforming and lower positive behaviors than did parents. The results further indicated that parents' perceptions of storm and stress were related to their degree of parental responsiveness; but teachers' perceptions were not related to their teaching style. These results suggest that stereotypic beliefs of the adolescent period continue to be maintained, and that these may influence how adults interact with adolescents.     

Autism,Attachment and Parenting: A Comparison of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder,Mental Retardation,Language Disorder,and Non-clinical Children

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have severe and pervasive impairments in the development of social interaction, which may affect the attachment relationship with their parents and may have an impact on parenting. In the current investigation 89 families with young children (mean age 26.5 months) were involved, who were diagnosed as ASD, mentally retarded (MR), or language delayed (LD), or part of a non-clinical comparison group. Attachment security was observed with the Brief Attachment Screening Questionnaire, and several parental self-report questionnaires assessed the parenting style, parental efficacy, parental experiences of daily hassles, social support, and psychological problems. Children with ASD were rated as less secure compared to the other clinical and normal comparison groups. Parents of non-clinical children reported higher levels of authoritative parenting than parents in the ASD group and in the total clinical group, and they also received less social support. Parents of children with ASD coped remarkably well with the challenges of raising a child with ASD.     

Parenting Stress, Social Support, and Depression for Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers: Impact on Child Development

Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher for African American and Latina adolescents compared to their White peers. African American and Latina adolescent mothers also experience more adversities than their White peers, such as higher rates of depression, school dropout, and economic disadvantage. Furthermore, children of adolescent mothers are at higher risk for adverse development. Parenting stress and social support can impact outcomes experienced by adolescent parents and their children. The present study examined the influence of adolescent mothers’ parenting stress and perceived social support on maternal depression at baseline (6 months after birth), and its impact on infant development 1 year later (18 months after birth). Participants were 180 adolescent mothers of African American or Latino/Hispanic descent. Results suggest that higher levels of parenting stress and less perceived social support were associated with higher levels of depression in the adolescent mothers at baseline. Higher levels of maternal depression were also associated with more developmental delays in infants 1 year post-baseline. Additionally, depression mediated the relationship between parenting stress and later child outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of examining parenting factors such as parenting stress, social support, and maternal depression in ethnic minority adolescent parents, and provide valuable information regarding unique risk and protective factors associated with positive maternal outcomes for ethnic minority adolescent parents and healthy development for their children.     

Attachment, Friendship, and Psychosocial Functioning in Early Adolescence

Fifth-graders' (N = 162; 93 girls) relationships with parents and friends were examined with respect to their main and interactive effects on psychosocial functioning. Participants reported on parental support, the quality of their best friendships, self-worth, and perceptions of social competence. Peers reported on aggression, shyness and withdrawal, and rejection and victimization. Mothers reported on psychological adjustment. Perceived parental support and friendship quality predicted higher global self-worth and social competence and less internalizing problems. Perceived parental support predicted fewer externalizing problems, and paternal (not maternal) support predicted lower rejection and victimization. Friendship quality predicted lower rejection and victimization for only girls. Having a supportive mother protected boys from the effects of low-quality friendships on their perceived social competence. High friendship quality buffered the effects of low maternal support on girls' internalizing difficulties.     

自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题与父母焦虑的关系:育儿压力的中介作用与领悟社会支持的调节作用

为探讨自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题与其父母焦虑的关系及其内在作用机制,研究采用问卷法对1023名自闭症和智力障碍儿童父母进行调查。结果表明：(1)自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题对父母焦虑具有正向预测作用;(2)育儿压力在儿童行为问题和父母焦虑间起中介作用;(3)儿童行为问题与育儿压力的关系受到领悟社会支持水平的调节,调节作用只在智力障碍儿童父母群体中显著。研究结果有助于揭示自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题对父母焦虑的影响及作用机制,对改善自闭症和智力障碍儿童父母育儿压力与焦虑具有一定指导意义。     

How Variations in Parents’ Use of Confrontive and Coercive Control Relate to Variations in Parent–Adolescent Conflict,Adolescent Disclosure,and Parental Knowledge: Adolescents’ Perspective

Benefits and drawbacks of parental control exercised in relation to adolescents continue to be debated in socialization research with greater emphasis being placed on the benefits of parental autonomy-granting than parental control. We examined the relations between maternal and paternal control and parent–adolescent conflict frequency and intensity as well as parental knowledge of adolescent activities and adolescents’ disclosure of their activities to parents. Adolescents in grades 10 and 12 were interviewed about parenting practices their parents employed when regulating 18 adolescent activities. Thirty-seven parenting practices emerged from which authoritarian, directive, authoritative, democratic, and unengaged parenting clusters were derived. Adolescents whose mothers and fathers were classified as directive or authoritative reported less conflict with parents, more disclosure to parents, and more parental knowledge than adolescents whose mothers and fathers were classified as authoritarian. Coercive control practices of authoritarian parents as well as nondemanding practices of unengaged parents and to some extent of democratic parents were related to more negative parent–child relationship indicators than was the extensive use of firm/confrontive control (rational-demanding) by directive parents or authoritative parents. Evidence herein supports the conclusion that even for middle and late adolescents, parental control that is rational and firm is related to beneficial parent–child relationship qualities. Therefore, practitioners should underscore the importance of continued parental control during adolescence not just of autonomy-granting.     

残疾儿童家长亲职压力的特点及其与生活质量的关系:社会支持的中介作用

本研究旨在考查残疾儿童家长亲职压力的特点, 并探讨亲职压力、社会支持对生活质量的影响。使用《亲职压力指标简表》、《社会支持评定量表》和《世界卫生组织生活质量测定简表》(中文版)对孤独症、智力残疾、听力残疾、视力残疾以及脑瘫5种残疾类型儿童的369名家长进行问卷调查。结果发现:(1)残疾儿童家长亲职压力及其各维度在不同残疾儿童类型中差异显著, 孤独症儿童家长在总分及各维度中均最高, 听力残疾儿童家长均最低;(2)亲职压力各维度与社会支持各维度以及生活质量各维度均呈显著负相关, 社会支持各维度与生活质量各维度之间均呈显著正相关;(3)亲职压力与生活质量的典型相关分析表明两者的整体相关显著;(4)社会支持在亲职压力和生活质量间起部分中介作用。     

Exploring Correlates and Predictors of Stress in Parents of Children Who are Deaf: Implications of Perceived Social Support and Mode of Communication

Parenting stress has been linked to negative outcomes for both parents and children, including poor attachment, behavior problems, less positive parent–child interactions, and marital dissatisfaction. Given that parents of special needs children often experience excess stress, they may be susceptible to negative outcomes, thus investigations of protective factors are needed. We explored relationships among parenting stress, social support, mode of communication, and child cochlear implant status in parents rearing a deaf child or child with hearing loss. Findings of our exploratory study indicated that parents of children who use sign language only reported more support, while parents of children who use total communication exhibited less self-reported stress. Also, parents with children who use implants did not differ on any of the measures compared to parents of children without implants. Additional findings suggested that higher levels of perceived social support corresponded with lower stress among parents, however, receipt of supportive behaviors did not correlate significantly with parenting stress. In an overall model, perceived social support and mode of communication were significant predictors of parenting stress. Finally, enacted support predicted significantly life satisfaction in parents. Implications and limitations, as well as suggestions for future research, will also be offered.     

直升机教养的内涵、影响和后效

直升机教养是父母对始成年期青少年普遍采用的一种教养方式,它是指父母给孩子过度的支持,较多地控制其行为,并不能给予孩子适合其年龄的自主权的教养方式。本文从直升机教养的概念辨析、影响因素和作用后效方面进行了系统梳理和整合分析,未来研究需要扩展研究对象和内容、精细探讨直升机教养的作用机制、重视我国始成年人的直升机教养,深入考察直升机教养与健康成长的因果关系。     

How Does Homelessness Affect Parenting Behaviour? A Systematic Critical Review and Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Research

The adverse social and physical conditions of homelessness pose significant developmental risks for children, which may be compounded or buffered by the quality of parenting behaviour they are exposed to. There is currently a limited understanding of how parents approach their care-giving role and responsibilities while adjusting to the experience of homelessness. Advancing knowledge in this area is essential for developing acceptable, appropriate and effective interventions to support highly marginalised and vulnerable homeless families. This review explored homeless parents’ perceptions of how homelessness affects their parenting behaviour and identified adaptive strategies that parents may use to mitigate the potentially negative impacts of homelessness on the quality of care-giving. A systematic search of four electronic databases (ASSIA, PsycINFO, Web of Science and MEDLINE) identified 13 published qualitative studies, all originating from the USA, which explored parenting behaviour in homeless contexts. The studies were critically appraised using the CASP qualitative assessment tool. Thematic synthesis identified the following determinants of parenting behaviour; negative self-concept in the parental role, parental mental health, material resources, challenges to autonomy and self-efficacy, daily hassles, physical environment and service context, stigma, child characteristics and lack of support. These were synthesised thematically using existing models of parenting determinants and positive parenting. Findings indicate substantive impacts of homelessness on parental mental health, parenting authority, material resources, parenting environments and social support. Parents developed a number of adaptive methods to negotiate the challenges of homeless parenting such as maintaining a positive mindset, cherishing the parental role and developing practical strategies. We conclude with recommendations that service providers should tailor parenting support to resource-constrained circumstances and that further research is required in order to better understand experiences of homeless parents in other international contexts.     

Predicting parenting stress: children's behavioural problems and parents' coping

This study examined the effects of child characteristics and parent coping practices on parenting stress, based on a sample of parents of 64 boys with behavioural problems and a comparison group with parents of 128 boys. All parents completed questionnaires about stress, length of education, child characteristics, social support, sense of coherence and coping practices, in addition to interviews in their home about daily activities and relations with the child. A hierarchical regression model for predicting parenting stress was tested, and the results showed that having a child with behavioural problems predicted 57% of the variance in parenting stress. Social support and parental resources and strategies added to the prediction of parenting stress after controlling for family demographics and child characteristics. The parents in the clinical group (with boys referred to psychiatric units) were more often single parents with lower education, more often unemployed, less content with social support, and had lower scores on comprehensibility. These parents were significantly more stressed than parents in the comparison group. All these risk factors might be barriers against establishing a protective frame around a child. These parents, with a difficult child‐rearing situation, who perceived less support and had fewer material benefits, seemed to be more vulnerable. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using Structural Equation Modeling and Multidimensional Scaling to Assess Female College Students’ Academic Adjustment as a Function of Perceived Parenting Styles

One understudied aspect of first-year students' transition to college is their relationship with their parents. This study investigated the relationship between three parenting styles (authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative) and adjustment to college life of Palestinian-Arab young females. The aims of the study were to measure Palestinian-Arab females' perceptions of their parents' parenting styles and the set of connections between these perceptions and adjustment to college constructs. This study used repeated measures analysis, structural equation modeling (SEM) and smallest space analysis (SSA, a variant of multidimensional scaling MDS) statistical methods to compute the complex relationships indicated in previous research between the examined variables. Repeated measures analysis results showed that the participants perceived their parents as more authoritative than permissive or authoritarian. With regard to the authoritative parenting, the path model and the SSA solution indicated different results. Only the SSA has confirmed the postulated connection between authoritative parenting style and academic adjustment, for both parental structures. Both statistical methods showed a positive connection between the authoritarian parenting style and academic maladjustment. Permissive parenting style was not found to be related to positive or negative adjustment to college. Interpretation of these results, their congruence within the context of the theoretical frameworks and practical implications are discussed.     

Personal adjustment and perceptions of grandchild behavior in custodial grandmothers

Examined parenting stress, depression, parenting satisfaction, and perceptions of child behavior in 35 custodial grandmothers seeking outpatient psychological services for their grandchildren ages 3 to 12. These clinic grandmothers reported significantly greater stress and depression, less parenting satisfaction, and more negative perceptions of their grandchildren's behavior than did 35 nonclinic custodial grandmothers. Also, similar to a comparison group of 35 clinic mothers and to the empirical literature on clinic parents, the clinic grandmothers' personal adjustment (i.e., stress and depression) was related significantly to their perceptions of their grandchildren's behavior. Thus, assessment of custodial grandmothers' adjustment, as well as grandchild behavior, in clinical settings appears warranted.     

Peer referencing in adolescent decision making as a function of perceived parenting style

This study examined the relationship between parenting style and adolescent decision making. Two hundred sixty-two college students completed a decision-making scale as well as a parenting scale in an effort to determine if the child-rearing style of their parents was related to the tendency of these late adolescents to reference peers rather than parents or other adults in decision making. The results indicated that adolescents raised by authoritative parents tended to refer to their parents for moral and informational decisions, while adolescents raised by authoritarian, permissive, or neglecting-rejecting parents more often referenced their peers for moral and informational decisions. Adolescents referred to their peers for social decisions regardless of how they were raised. Parental responsiveness was a significant factor in determining the source of adolescent decision-making assistance, but parental demandingness was not. It was concluded that less orientation toward peers during late adolescence seems to be another advantage of authoritative parenting.     

The Role of Unconditional Parental Regard in Autonomy‐Supportive Parenting

Two studies explored the role of parents’ unconditional positive regard (UCPR) as perceived by adolescents and young adults in promoting the effectiveness of specific parenting practices that may support offspring's academic autonomous motivation. Study 1 tested the hypothesis that UCPR predicts rationale‐giving and choice‐provision practices and, at the same time, moderates their relations with adolescents’ autonomous motivation. Study 2 replicated the association between UCPR and the parental practices, and further explored the role of parents’ authenticity as an antecedent of UCPR and parental autonomy support. Study 1 included 125 adolescents and Study 2 considered 128 college‐students and their mothers. The offspring reported on their perceptions of their mothers and on their autonomous motivation, and the mothers reported on their sense of authenticity. Both studies found consistent associations between UCPR and parenting practices that may support autonomous motivation. Moreover, Study 1 demonstrated that the rationale giving and choice provision were more strongly related to adolescents’ autonomous motivation when adolescents perceived mothers as high on UCPR. Finally, Study 2 demonstrated that mothers’ authenticity predicted UCPR, which in turn was related to autonomy‐supportive parenting. Findings support the assumption that parents’ autonomy‐supportive practices are more effective when accompanied by UCPR.     

Perceived Collective Efficacy and Parenting Competence: The Roles of Quality of Life and Hope

Parents' perceptions of their parenting competence predict successful implementation of parenting tasks and contribute to their interest and involvement in parenting and to their children's development. Thus, identifying factors that contribute to parents' perceptions of parenting competence can help inform efforts to promote children's safety and well-being. The present study employs social disorganization theory to examine the relationship between collective efficacy and parents' sense of competence, measured along two dimensions: parental efficacy and parental satisfaction. It examines the direct association between the two constructs and whether the association is mediated by parent perceptions of their quality of life (QOL) and sense of hope. Data were collected from 198 parents residing in a neighborhood in southern Tel Aviv, Israel. The analyses indicated that high collective efficacy was directly associated with high parental efficacy, but not with high parental satisfaction. Using structural equation modeling, a mediation model was found whereby higher collective efficacy was associated with (a) higher QOL, which in turn was related to a greater sense of hope, which was linked with higher parental efficacy; and (b) higher QOL, which was directly associated with higher parental satisfaction. The findings provide further support to the idea that neighborhood characteristics play an important role in parents' ability to care for their children.     

Predicting Parenting Stress in Families of Children with ADHD: Parent and Contextual Factors

We examined parental ADHD symptoms and contextual (parental education, social support, marital status) predictors of parent domain parenting stress (parental distress) as a function of child ADHD symptoms in a sample of 95 parents of 8 to 12 year-old children with and without ADHD. Parents’ perceptions of parental distress and social support were inversely-related. Parental ADHD symptomatology was the strongest predictor of parental distress of the variables considered. Models using teacher reports of child ADHD symptomatology and oppositionality differed from ones using parent reports, in that child oppositionality was only predictive of parental distress in the parent-report model. A post-hoc analysis showed that child factors did not predict parental distress over and above parent ADHD symptoms and contextual factors. These results suggest that parental ADHD symptomatology and parenting stress reduction should be considered in development of interventions for families of children with ADHD.     

Longitudinal impact of parental and adolescent personality on parenting

This study provides a test of how personality may shape social behaviors in a long-lasting dyad: the parent-adolescent relationship. In a large Belgian community sample, it was examined which parent Big Five characteristics were related to parenting and whether adolescent Big Five characteristics elicited certain parenting behaviors. Further, the proposition that individual differences are amplified under stress was examined by exploring whether parent personality was differentially related to parenting for parents of "easy" versus "difficult" adolescents. Moreover, possible differences in associations across parental and adolescent gender were explored. Mothers (N = 467) and fathers (N = 428) reported on their personality using the Five-Factor Personality Inventory; adolescents (N = 475) assessed their personality with the Hierarchical Personality Inventory for Children. Two types of parenting behaviors, overreactive discipline and warmth, were assessed 2 years later by parent self-reports, partner reports, and adolescent reports, from which multi-informant latent factors were created. Results indicate that parental personality was more relevant than adolescent personality for explaining overreactivity, but parent and adolescent personality were similarly relevant in explaining warmth. Especially parental and adolescent Agreeableness and adolescent Extraversion were important predictors of both types of parenting. Associations between parental personality and parenting were similarly related to parents of easy versus difficult adolescents, and for mothers and fathers parenting daughters or sons. Together, results show that parent characteristics as well as adolescent characteristics importantly affect dysfunctional and adaptive parenting.     

A Model of Intention to Participate in Parenting Interventions: The Role of Parent Cognitions and Behaviors

A wide range of factors, from perceived child behavior problems to sociocultural factors, have been identified as impacting the engagement of parents in parenting interventions. However, parents’ cognitions and behaviors have not been evaluated sufficiently to understand their role in initial parental engagement. The current study aimed to examine why some parents are more likely to want to participate in parenting programs and how their cognitions and behaviors are related to their intention to participate in future parenting interventions. We tested the hypothesised model of parental factors on intention to participate using structural equation modelling (SEM) in AMOS. This study (N = 6,733) analyzed existing data from the International Parenting Survey (IPS), a web-based tool developed to collect information about parents’ views on family and parenting at a population level in several countries. Results showed that parents’ coercive parenting, parental consistency, positive encouragement, relationship with their child, parental self-efficacy, psychological distress, and help-seeking behaviors were significantly related to their intention to participate in future parenting interventions. The structural model of parents’ cognitions and behaviors explained 16% of the variance in intention to participate. Although the current model explained a small but significant percentage of the variance, it expands existing understanding regarding parental cognitions and behaviors and their relationship to intention. Implications for further research and engagement practice are discussed.