Not all ideals are equal: Intrinsic and extrinsic ideals in relationships

The ideal standards model suggests that greater consistency between ideal standards and actual perceptions of one's relationship predicts positive relationship evaluations; however, no research has evaluated whether this differs across types of ideals. A self‐determination theory perspective was derived to test whether satisfaction of intrinsic ideals buffers the importance of extrinsic ideals. Participants (N = 195) in committed relationships directly and indirectly reported the extent to which their partner met their ideal on two dimensions: intrinsic (e.g., warm, intimate) and extrinsic (e.g., attractive, successful). Relationship need fulfillment and relationship quality were also assessed. Hypotheses were largely supported, such that satisfaction of intrinsic ideals more strongly predicted relationship functioning, and satisfaction of intrinsic ideals buffered the relevance of extrinsic ideals for outcomes.     

动机的结构与效应：基于动机连续体的视角

动机连续体是对内部动机、外部动机进行整合的心理学概念,其对内部动机和外部动机的争论提出了不同的假设。从大理论(grand theory)视角出发,对涉及上述两个概念的理论进行梳理,将自我决定理论与其他相关理论进行整合。由此展开对内部动机、外部动机结构的讨论,总结了动机的单维结构、多维结构和复杂结构假设下的理论新进展,分别论述在拮抗效应、累加效应和其他复杂效应等假设下动机对结果变量的影响,并展开不同效应对实践应用的讨论。     

Comparing Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Social Values Between Younger and Older Employees

Socioemotional selectivity theory proposes that older adults emphasize emotional goals and interpersonal closeness to a greater extent than do younger adults, suggesting that holding social work-related values (SWVs) may be beneficial to older employees. This project aimed at examining two dimensions of SWVs, intrinsic and extrinsic SWVs, and tested whether age and work situation would moderate their effects on self-rated job performance. A cross-sectional survey (Study 1, N = 357) and a 14-day experience sampling study (Study 2, N = 77) were conducted among Chinese managerial employees. Study 1 showed that the direct effect of intrinsic SWVs on self-rated job performance was stronger in older employees than in younger employees. Study 2 demonstrated that older employees who valued intrinsic SWVs while being in social situations performed much better than when they did not value intrinsic SWVs but being in social situations; however such positive effect was not shown in younger employees. Findings of this project reveal that the effect of SWVs varies across locus of effect (intrinsic versus extrinsic), age, and work situation. Among older employees, the positive effect of intrinsic SWVs is more crucial than that of extrinsic SWVs on self-rated job performance. Findings of this project imply that intrinsically rewarding incentives would be more effective in motivating older employees to reach peak performance.     

Section II Group Therapy for Children in Latency

A variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors exert pressure on clinicians and researchers to forge a more effective alliance in their mutual efforts to understand treatment process and outcome. The authors provide a general framework and a specific group-therapy model to demonstrate how research measures can facilitate this integration and thereby improve the quality of service delivery. We divide treatment into four phases: negotiation, retention, enhancement, and evaluation, and illustrate how psychotherapists can use research instruments to overcome problems at each stage of intervention.     

内在动机及其前因变量

该文比较系统地介绍了目前国内外关于内在动机的概念和具体影响因素诸方面的研究进展,并对未来的研究发展方向进行了展望。内在动机主要是由于活动过程本身特性或个体内发性精神需要所引发的一种活动或工作动力。相关影响因素主要涉及个体需要兴趣情感因素、工作任务本身特性、个体成就目标设置、自我效能感、组织授权与交换以及外在激励方式等方面。未来研究的方向主要在于内在动机具体结构的深入探讨以及不同影响因素的中介变量、调节变量以及诸因素交互作用综合模型的建立等方面     

Longitudinal Examination of the Relationship Between Supplies–Values Fit and Work Outcomes

This study focuses on the robustness of the relationship between supplies–values (S–V) fit and work outcomes. Specifically, the functional form that best describes the relationships of three different dimensions of S–V fit (i.e. intrinsic work aspects, extrinsic work aspects, and social relations at work) with job satisfaction, intention to leave the organisation and psychological well‐being was investigated using the moderated regression technique proposed by Edwards (1991, 1994). This study extends previous research by examining the stability of these relationships across two occasions, separated by a period of four years. Results showed that the functional form of the relationship of S–V fit with work outcomes differed by the S–V fit dimension and the work outcome under investigation. However, the functional form of each of these relationships on the first occasion was almost identical to the form of the relationships on the second occasion. Additionally, results showed that all three S–V fit dimensions affected job satisfaction and intention to leave, but had only a weak effect on psychological well‐being. The organisational supplies component, as well as its quadratic term in particular, had a large influence on job satisfaction and intention to leave. Implications for future research in the P–O fit area are discussed.     

Not All Alike: The Distinctive Impact of Voluntary and Involuntary Effort on Stress and Fatigue

Nowadays, little evidence exists on how variations in effort affect worker health, such as stress and fatigue, two important and undesirable outcomes for workers. Then, this paper analyses the impact of different dimensions of effort on stress and fatigue. To do so we use past literature to links the different effort dimensions on employee health. Concretely, the frameworks used in the paper are the one developed by Karasek and Theorell (1990), according to which the different combinations of work demands, competences in decision making and social support determine the stress employees suffer; and the effort-reward imbalance model (ERI Model) of Siegrist (Psychology 1:27–41, 1996). This provides a more sensitive model of stress, as it uses a combination of extrinsic effort and intrinsic effort as predictors of stress. Building on these theoretical models of job stress we argue that one main source of employee stress and fatigue is employee effort. Using a representative Spanish data set, our study reveals that different dimensions of effort have different consequences for workers. Whereas involuntary effort increases both stress and fatigue, voluntary effort entails a decrease in both.     

Intrinsic Ethics Regarding Integrated Assessment Models for Climate Management

In this essay we develop and argue for the adoption of a more comprehensive model of research ethics than is included within current conceptions of responsible conduct of research (RCR). We argue that our model, which we label the ethical dimensions of scientific research (EDSR), is a more comprehensive approach to encouraging ethically responsible scientific research compared to the currently typically adopted approach in RCR training. This essay focuses on developing a pedagogical approach that enables scientists to better understand and appreciate one important component of this model, what we call intrinsic ethics. Intrinsic ethical issues arise when values and ethical assumptions are embedded within scientific findings and analytical methods. Through a close examination of a case study and its application in teaching, namely, evaluation of climate change integrated assessment models, this paper develops a method and case for including intrinsic ethics within research ethics training to provide scientists with a comprehensive understanding and appreciation of the critical role of values and ethical choices in the production of research outcomes.     

Gender influencers on work values of black adolescents

Work values and key influencers of a sample of black male and female adolescents were examined. Results indicated that boys and girls valued both the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards of work; however, girls reported slighter stronger extrinsic values than did boys. In addition, the sexes reported differences in the importance of specific work values such as "making lots of money," and "doing important things." When naming a key influencer, respondents tended to cite a same-sex and race individual. Sex of one's key influencer was related to certain work values, with subjects reporting a male key influencer valuing "trying out one's own ideas" and "having a secure future" more than those reporting a female key influencer. The interaction of sex of subject and sex of key influencer was significant on one of the work value outcomes. Implications of these findings are considered.     

When ‘fit’ leads to fit,and when ‘fit’ leads to fat: How message framing and intrinsic vs. extrinsic exercise outcomes interact in promoting physical activity

A unique aspect of exercise is that people may choose to engage in it to achieve a variety of outcomes, ranging from extrinsic (appearance, health) to intrinsic (satisfaction, enjoyment). We examined how the impact of gain- vs. loss-framed messages depends on the type of outcome emphasised. Drawing from regulatory focus theory (Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280–1300; Higgins, E.T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55, 1217–1230), we predicted that gain-framed messages would ‘fit’ with intrinsic outcomes and loss-framed messages would ‘fit’ with extrinsic outcomes, but the effect of such fit on physical activity would depend on the participants’ need for cognition (NC). We tested these hypotheses with a sample of 176 sedentary young adults who read an exercise message with randomly assigned frame (gain/loss) and outcome (intrinsic/extrinsic). Participants provided daily reports of exercise over the following week. The predicted interaction between frame, outcome and NC was found (p?=?0.001) such that a ‘fit’ message promoted somewhat, but not significantly, greater exercise for those with high NC, but a ‘non-fit’ message promoted significantly greater exercise for those with low NC. Furthermore, differences in physical activity were partially mediated by attitudes towards exercise. Findings shed light on how the outcomes and motivations associated with physical activity shape people's behavioural responses to framed health communications.     

Testing extrinsic and intrinsic motivation as explanatory variables for the safety climate–safety performance relationship among long-haul truck drivers

The paper tests the proposition that the organizational climate-behavior relationship is based primarily on extrinsic motivation induced by climate perceptions. Using safety climate as exemplar, the effect of climate-induced extrinsic motivation was compared with that of engagement-induced intrinsic motivation on safety behavior and subsequent injury outcomes. Using a sample of long-haul truck drivers representing lone employees, (individual-level) safety climate perceptions and employee engagement predicted safety behavior, which mediated their effect on subsequently measured road injury outcomes. Consistent with meta-analytic evidence suggesting a non-symmetric compensatory relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, high safety climate undermined the effect of engagement on safety behavior with the reverse being true under low safety climate. This resulted in a moderation effect of engagement on the strength of relationship between climate perceptions and safety behavior. Theoretical and practical implications for climate, engagement, and lone work research are discussed.     

When 'fit' leads to fit, and when 'fit' leads to fat: how message framing and intrinsic vs. extrinsic exercise outcomes interact in promoting physical activity

A unique aspect of exercise is that people may choose to engage in it to achieve a variety of outcomes, ranging from extrinsic (appearance, health) to intrinsic (satisfaction, enjoyment). We examined how the impact of gain- vs. loss-framed messages depends on the type of outcome emphasised. Drawing from regulatory focus theory (Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300; Higgins, E.T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55, 1217-1230), we predicted that gain-framed messages would 'fit' with intrinsic outcomes and loss-framed messages would 'fit' with extrinsic outcomes, but the effect of such fit on physical activity would depend on the participants' need for cognition (NC). We tested these hypotheses with a sample of 176 sedentary young adults who read an exercise message with randomly assigned frame (gain/loss) and outcome (intrinsic/extrinsic). Participants provided daily reports of exercise over the following week. The predicted interaction between frame, outcome and NC was found (p=0.001) such that a 'fit' message promoted somewhat, but not significantly, greater exercise for those with high NC, but a 'non-fit' message promoted significantly greater exercise for those with low NC. Furthermore, differences in physical activity were partially mediated by attitudes towards exercise. Findings shed light on how the outcomes and motivations associated with physical activity shape people's behavioural responses to framed health communications.     

On the relations among work value orientations,psychological need satisfaction and job outcomes: A self‐determination theory approach

Using self‐determination theory, two studies found that holding an extrinsic, relative to an intrinsic, work value orientation was associated with less positive outcomes (i.e. less satisfaction with, dedication to and vitality while on the job) and more negative outcomes (i.e. higher emotional exhaustion, short‐lived satisfaction after successful goal‐attainment, and turn‐over intention). These relations were not limited to job outcomes, but also emerged using indicators of employees' general mental health. Moreover, income level did not moderate these relations. Study 2 found that holding an extrinsic, relative to an intrinsic, work value orientation was detrimental to employees' job outcomes because these orientations thwarted the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness at work.     

THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS, GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY, AND CAREER SUCCESS ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN

The present study investigated the relationship of traits from the 5-factor model of personality (often termed the "Big Five") and general mental ability with career success. Career success was argued to be comprised of intrinsic success (job satisfaction) and extrinsic success (income and occupational status) dimensions. Data were obtained from the Intergenerational Studies, a set of 3 studies that followed participants from early childhood to retirement. The most general findings were that conscientiousness positively predicted intrinsic and extrinsic career success, neuroticism negatively predicted extrinsic success, and general mental ability positively predicted extrinsic career success. Personality was related to career success controlling for general mental ability and, though adulthood measures of the Big Five traits were more strongly related to career success than were childhood measures, both contributed unique variance in explaining career success.     

The nature and outcomes of work: a replication and extension of interdisciplinary work-design research

Research into the changing nature of work requires comprehensive models of work design. One such model is the interdisciplinary framework (M. A. Campion, 1988), which integrates 4 work-design approaches (motivational, mechanistic, biological, perceptual-motor) and links each approach to specific outcomes. Unfortunately, studies of this framework have used methods that disregard measurement error, overlook dimensions within each work-design approach, and treat each approach and outcome separately. This study reanalyzes data from M. A. Campion (1988), using structural equation models that incorporate measurement error, specify multiple dimensions for each work-design approach, and examine the work-design approaches and outcomes jointly. Results show that previous studies underestimate relationships between work-design approaches and outcomes and that dimensions within each approach exhibit relationships with outcomes that differ in magnitude and direction.     

11岁和15岁儿童学习动机和数学素养的关系

选取2133名11岁和15岁学生,采用PISA测试为数学素养指标,探讨学生学习动机的不同维度与数学素养之间的关系。结果发现：（1）11岁学生的内部动机明显地强于15岁学生。（2）11岁学生内部动机中的挑战性动机与数学素养间的相关程度明显弱于15岁学生。（3）11岁高数学素养的学生组,数学素养和内、外学习动机有明显的相关,低数学素养学生组两者则不相关;对于15岁低数学素养的学生组,数学素养得分和内、外部学习动机有明显的相关,高数学素养学生组两者则不相关。     

Work-Related Flow Dimensions differentially Predict Anxiety,Life Satisfaction,and Work Longevity among Filipino Counselors

Flow at work was associated with optimal psychological outcomes in the organizational setting. However, previous studies have concentrated on work-related flow as an outcome rather than a catalyst of positive psychological functioning. Further, the differential impact of work-related flow domains on key outcomes was still uncharted. To address this empirical gap, the current investigation examined work-related flow dimensions as differential predictors of anxiety, life satisfaction, and work longevity among 133 Filipino guidance counselors. The results of hierarchical regression analyses have shown that work enjoyment served as a robust predictor of anxiety, life satisfaction and work longevity even after controlling for the influence of relevant demographic variables. Absorption positively predicted work longevity. However, intrinsic work motivation did not predict any outcome. Discussion points revolved around the unique theoretical contributions of the current study to the foregoing work-related flow theory and concrete practical implications to emphasize the psychological benefits of work-flow especially in the field of counseling.     

Does the human odometer use an extrinsic or intrinsic metric?

It is commonly assumed that path integration is based on an extrinsic measure of the objective distance traversed during locomotion. In contrast, biological odometers may rely on embodied intrinsic measures, such as idiothetic information specific to an action mode. We investigated this question using a distance reproduction task in which participants traveled an outbound distance and then reproduced that distance using the same or a different action mode. The extrinsic model predicted that distance reproduction should be invariant across action modes, whereas the intrinsic model predicted invariance only within an action mode. In Experiment 1, we held the outbound mode constant while varying the response mode (walk–walk, walk–throw) and corrected for response production error (view–walk, view–throw). In Experiment 2, we crossed different gaits in the outbound and response modes (walk, gallop). In both cases, we found that distance reproduction was significantly more accurate when the outbound and response modes matched, consistent with the intrinsic model. The results indicate that the human odometer preferentially relies on an intrinsic, rather than an extrinsic, metric. This solution is sufficient to support successful path integration within an action mode (but not across action modes), without the difficulties of objective distance estimation.