领悟社会支持、实际社会支持与大学生抑郁

该研究以316名大学生为被试,探讨了领悟社会支持和实际社会支持与大学生抑郁之间的关系。结构方程模型的分析表明,大学生对当前社会支持的领悟对抑郁具有直接的缓冲作用;实际社会支持主要通过领悟社会支持对大学生的抑郁情绪起缓冲作用。研究结果暗示着,领悟社会支持是一种在应对压力情境中发展起来的特质或图式,在个体应对压力时表现为一种弹性人格,从而防止消极情绪的恶化或产生。     

Role of Perceived Social Support on Depression in Chinese Adolescents: A Prospective Study Examining the Buffering Model

In response to the dearth of attempts to examine functions of perceived social support on depression in Chinese adolescents, a prospective study was conducted to examine the relationship among stressful life events, perceived social support, and depression. The present results provided support for the buffering model, indicating that the function of perceived social support in mitigating subsequent depression was prominent only under high stress levels. These results were discussed in terms of the socialized role of Chinese adolescents, as well as the function of esteem enhancement of perceived social support in alleviating depression. Reciprocal relationships between initial depression levels and subsequent levels of social support were also discussed. Possible counseling and prevention programs for Chinese adolescents are proposed.     

Social support, stress, and depressive symptoms among the elderly: test of a process model.

Effects of social support, negative life events, and daily hassles on depressive symptoms were assessed in 301 adults aged 65 or older, in person 3 times at 6-month intervals and by mail questionnaires every month over a 12-month period. Initial social support predicted severity of depressive symptoms 12 months later. Social support and initial levels of depressive symptomatology predicted number of daily hassles but not number of major life events. Effects of social support, depression, and major life events on the incidence of daily hassles remained significant without the inclusion of hassles reflecting depressive symptomatology or problems in relationships or whose content overlapped with major life events. Daily hassles mediated the effects of major life events on subsequent depression. Results did not differ for men and women. Implications for models of the relations among social support, stress, and depression are discussed.     

Social support and immune function among spouses of cancer patients

This study investigated whether social support was related to immune function among spouses of cancer patients. Effects of depression and negative life events were examined as potential mediators. Results showed evidence of greater immunocompetence on 2 of 3 dynamic measures: natural killer cytotoxicity and proliferation response to phytohemagglutinin among spouses who reported high levels of social support. All six components of social support assessed by the Social Provisions Scale (Cutrona & Russell, 1987) were strongly related to these indices of immune function. No evidence was found for mediation by either life events or depression.     

Life events,social support and depression in haemodialysis patients

This study examined the effects of life events and social support on depression in 200 dialysis patients. The instruments used included the Beck Depression Inventory, a modified version of Sarason's Life Experiences Survey and a Social Support Inventory (SSI) constructed by the authors. The SSI consisted of five quantitative measures and three measures of perceived social support. These measures were found to be internally consistent and stable over time. Results showed that clinically depressed dialysis patients reported fewer positive life events and appraised life events more negatively than non‐depressed patients. The total number of life events and the number of negative life events were not found to differentiate between depressed and non‐depressed patients. With regard to social support variables, results showed that depressed patients reported less frequent actual contact and telephone contact with others and perceived a smaller amount and less availability of social support and less satisfaction with perceived social support along the functional dimensions of emotional, informational, appraisal and instrumental support and social companionship. The results were found to provide support for a main effect model of social support and not for a buffering model. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Longitudinal Investigation of Depression,Hopelessness, Social Support,and Major and Minor Life Events and Their Relation to Suicidal Ideation in Adolescents

The longitudinal relationship of psychological and social-environmental factors with adolescent suicidal ideation over a 1-year-period was examined in a sample of 374 high school students. Students were assessed twice over a 1-year period with measures of depression, hopelessness, major negative life events, daily hassles, social support, and suicidal ideation. At the initial assessment, daily hassles and negative life events for males and social support and depression for females were significant factors related to suicidal ideation levels 1 year later. Changes in depression and hopelessness were significantly related to changes in suicidal ideation over the 1 year interval for males and females. Differences found between males and females in the relationship of psychological and social-environmental variables with suicidal ideation supports the need to examine gender specific relationships when conducting research on suicidal behavior in adolescents.     

Dysfunctional attitudes and psychosocial stress: The differential prediction of future psychological symptomatology

The interactive effects of dysfunctional attitudes, stressful life events, and social support on symptoms of depression and general psychological distress were investigated in the present study. Self-report measures of these five constructs were administered to 57 female undergraduates twice, with 3 months between testing sessions. Whereas the interactions of dysfunctional attitudes with stressful life events and with social support were expected to predict the subsequent severity of symptoms of depression, it was hypothesized that these two-way interactions would not predict symptoms of general psychological distress. These predictions were confirmed, with the exception that the interaction between dysfunctional attitudes and stressful life events was not a significant predictor of depressive symptoms. Specifically, it was found that the combination of a high number of dysfunctional attitudes measured at Time 1 with a low level of social support measured at Time 2 was positively related to the level of depressive symptoms assessed at Time 2. These results suggest that dysfunctional attitudes moderate the relationship between stress and mild depressive symptomatology. The implications of these findings for an interactional model of depression, as well as for directions for future research, are discussed.Preparation of this article was facilitated by a Medical Research Council of Canada Studentship to the first author, and by Grant MA-8574 from the Medical Research Council of Canada to the second author.     

The effect of low social support on short-term prognosis in patients following a first myocardial infarction

The objectives of the current study were (1) to assess adjustment in patients following a first myocardial infarction (MI) at 9 months compared with 4-6 weeks post-MI, (2) to examine the availability of and satisfaction with social support over time, and (3) to determine separate baseline psychosocial predictors of recurrent cardiac events. A questionnaire assessing post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, health complaints, and social support, was distributed to consecutive patients 4-6 weeks and 9 months post-MI. Prior to assessment at follow-up, 8 (7%) of 112 patients had dropped out, and two had died due to cardiac causes. Objective clinical measures were obtained from medical records. There was an improvement in somatic and cognitive symptoms at follow-up, but no change in symptoms of arousal, depression, and anxiety. Half of the patients were afraid of a recurrent MI. There was a significant decrease in social support between baseline and follow-up, and lower social support at baseline was associated with a 10% increased risk of recurrent cardiac events at follow-up (OR: 0.90; 95% CI: 0.84 to 0.97) adjusting for all other variables. Some patients still experienced difficulties with psychosocial adjustment 9 months post-MI despite a reduction in somatic and cognitive symptoms. Social support decreased over time, which may have serious prognostic implications; lower social support at baseline was an independent predictor of recurrent events at 9 months. An important step for future research will be to investigate how social support can be enhanced in patients at risk.     

Social support and the course of bipolar disorder

The current study prospectively examined the impact of social support on symptom severity and recovery from episodes in bipolar disorder, both as a direct influence and as a buffer of life events. Fifty-nine individuals with Bipolar I disorder were followed longitudinally with monthly symptom severity interviews. Social support was measured by the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List and the Interview Schedule for Social Interaction, and life events were assessed using the Life Events and Difficulties Schedule. Individuals with low social support took longer to recover from episodes and were more symptomatic across a 6-month follow-up. Results suggest a polarity-specific effect, in that social support influences depression but not mania. Discussion focuses on theoretical implications of a series of polarity-specific findings within the field.     

Personal vulnerability, life events, and depressive symptoms: a test of a specific interactional model

We tested Beck's (1983) hypothesis that depressive symptoms occur when an individual experiences a negative life event that specifically matches the individual's personal motivational vulnerability. Ninety-eight undergraduates completed measures of depression level, recent life events, and sociotropic and autonomous achievement motivations. Consistent with the theory, sociotropy was associated with depression level and also served as a moderator of the relations between depression and frequency of recent negative social events. However, sociotropy also demonstrated nonpredicted interactive effects with negative events categorized a priori as autonomy related. Autonomy was unrelated to depression and showed no evidence of being a vulnerability to any type of life event. The findings generally support the value of examining the role in depression of interactions between personality characteristics and life events, although they do not support the specific matching predictions.     

Multiple pathways from stress to suicidality and the protective effect of social support in Hong Kong adolescents

Two theoretical models were constructed to illustrate how stressful events, family and friends support, depression, substance use, and death attitude mutually influence to create cumulative risks for suicide. The models were evaluated using structural equation modeling. Results showed that suicidality was strongly predicted by death attitude, depression, and substance use which together form a dangerous combination of risk factors at the personal level. Within the adolescent's social environment, stressful events increased suicidality through intensifying depression, substance use, and death acceptance, whereas family and friends support lowered it, partly through reducing stress and death acceptance. The effect (direct and indirect combined) of family support was much stronger than that of friends support. Enhancing stress coping ability, promoting positive family relationships, and attacking attitudes supportive of death might be the best strategies to prevent youth suicide.     

Application of a stress and coping model to antenatal depressive symptomatology

This study examined the utility of a stress/coping model of antenatal depressive symptomatology. The direct and moderating effects of appraisal, coping resources and coping strategies on depression were explored. A total of 242 primiparous women completed questionnaires during the third trimester of pregnancy. Predictors included life events, coping resources (social support, quality of women's earlier relationships with parents), appraisal (threat, self-efficacy) and coping strategies (wishful thinking, positive reappraisal, problem solving, emotional approach). Results of regression analyses indicated that higher depression was related to higher stressful life events, threat appraisal and wishful thinking coping, and lower positive reappraisal coping. The expected stress exacerbation effects of wishful thinking on depression were supported. There was no support for the expected stress buffering effects of coping resources and coping strategies on depression. Findings provide preliminary support for the use of a stress/coping model to guide future research into psychosocial predictors of antenatal depression.     

Behavioral manifestations of social support: a microanalytic investigation

This study was designed to examine the specific interpersonal behaviors that convey support from one person to another. Subjects were 41 undergraduate students who completed a general measure of perceived social support and, subsequently, kept daily records of their social interactions and stressful experiences for 14 days. In addition, they completed a brief depressive mood measure (DACL; Lubin, 1981) each day. Results showed that behaviors reflecting emotional support and informational support occurred as a specific response to stressful life events. Although esteem support was expressed with equal frequency in the presence and absence of stress, it was especially effective in preventing depressive reactions to stressful events. Subjects who perceived themselves as having high levels of perceived social support were more frequently the recipients of helping behaviors following stressful events than those low in perceived support. Perceived social support was only predictive of helping behaviors on days on which at least one stressful event occurred. The total number of helping behaviors received following stressful events was a significant negative predictor of level of depressive mood, although one helping behavior was associated with higher levels of depression. Results are interpreted within the framework of the buffering model of social support.     

Controlled prospective study of postpartum mood disorders: psychological, environmental, and hormonal variables

Demographic, psychiatric, social, cognitive, and life stress variables were used to determine the etiology of depression in childbearing (CB; n = 182) and nonchildbearing (NCB; n = 179) women. Hormonal variables in postpartum depression were also evaluated. In the CB group predictors of depression diagnosis were previous depression, depression during pregnancy, and a Vulnerability (V) x Life Stress (LS) interaction; predictors of depressive symptomatology were previous depression, depressive symptoms during pregnancy, life events, and V x LS. Only estradiol was associated with postpartum depression diagnosis. In the NCB group V X LS was the only predictor of depression diagnosis; depressive symptoms during pregnancy and life events were predictors of depressive symptomatology. Previous findings about depression vulnerability were replicated. The significant V x LS interactions support the vulnerability-stress model of postpartum depression.     

The role of optimism in social network development, coping, and psychological adjustment during a life transition.

The authors investigated the extent to which social support and coping account for the association between greater optimism and better adjustment to stressful life events. College students of both genders completed measures of perceived stress, depression, friendship network size, and perceived social support at the beginning and end of their 1st semester of college. Coping was assessed at the end of the 1st semester. Greater optimism, assessed at the beginning of the 1st semester of college, was prospectively associated with smaller increases in stress and depression and greater increases in perceived social support (but not in friendship network size) over the course of the 1st semester of college. Mediational analyses were consistent with a model in which increases in social support and greater use of positive reinterpretation and growth contributed to the superior adjustment that optimists experienced.     

Marital Adjustment and Subjective Well-Being in Indian-Educated Housewives and Working Women

We compared marital adjustment and subjective well-being in Indian-educated housewives (N = 200) and working women (N = 200) who were administered a Marital Adjustment Questionnaire (Kumar & Rastogi, 1976) and 10 measures of subjective well-being (Warr, 1984). Results indicated significantly better marital adjustment and subjective well-being for the working women than for the housewives. Specifically, working women reported higher scores on general health, life satisfaction, and self-esteem measures and lower scores on hopelessness, insecurity, and anxiety, compared with the housewives, although the housewives had lower scores on negative affect than the working women. Findings were insignificant on positive affect and depression.     

Wives' work and psychological well-being: An extension of gove's social role theory of depression

The effectiveness of social role theory in explaining the relationship between wives' work (inside and outside the home) and psychological well-being is examined in reference to existing empirical patterns and alternative explanations. The theory is extended by the reorientation of its assumptions around central concepts and premises of the rational choice and social exchange framework: rewards, costs, cost reduction, alternative sources of gratification, and subjective evaluation of behavioral outcomes. Several mediating factors are integrated into the revised theory: help with housework and child care, work satisfaction, and participation in voluntary associations and social networks. The explanatory utility of the additional causal links proposed in the expanded theory is explored in a comparison of 50 employed wives and 50 housewives, all of whom have at least one preschool child living at home. The validity of the revised propositions is supported by the findings, which reveal no significant difference between the employed wives and the housewives in depression, health anxiety, or life satisfaction.     

Eternal Mothers or Flexible Housewives? Middle-aged Chinese Married Women in Hong Kong

How do Hong Kong Chinese women position themselves in relation to this stigmatized social category of “si-nai” (middle aged-housewives) and the prevailing norms and values regarding women’s roles? The case of middle-aged, married women in Hong Kong provides empirical support for an alternative understanding of the identity of adult woman and helps to problematize conceptualizations of women’s identity as centered on their mother roles. The narratives of these twenty-six women show the fluidity of their roles as mothers (and wives). These roles change with reference to social context, life circumstances, and life course. Many middle-aged women have tried to resist becoming “mad housewives” and have learnt to be “flexible housewives” by actively decentering their role as mothers.     

Alternative models of the stress buffering hypothesis

The interactive effects of life events and social support on a DSM-III diagnosis of major depressive episode and on number of depressive symptoms were examined. Data are from a stratified random sample of 3,732 community-dwelling adults. The paper focuses on differences between linear probability models and logistic regression models with regard to the definition, detection, and interpretation of interaction effects. Results indicate that conclusions about the interaction of life events and social support are model dependent. Using a linear probability model, significant event by support interactions were observed for both depressive symptoms and major depression. Using logistic regression, which estimates interactions in terms of odds ratios, no significant event by support interactions were observed. Discussion addresses the interpretive implications of modeling interaction in terms of probability differences versus odds ratios.     

The relationships between negative life events, perceived support in the school environment and depressive symptoms among Norwegian senior high school students: a prospective study

The present study prospectively explored the main and interactive effect of negative life events and social support from teachers and classroom peers on depressive symptoms in a sample of 198 (111 females, 87 males) students in a Norwegian senior high school. In the longitudinal multivariate analyses, self-reported depressive symptom levels at time-point two (T₂) were predicted by initial levels of depressive symptomatology, teacher support, and gender. Support from classroom peers at time-point one (T₁) was not associated with symptoms of depression at (T₂). Multivariate cross-sectional analysis also detected a significant positive association between negative life events and depressive symptoms. Finally, results suggest that perceived teacher support may buffer against negative life events leading to symptoms of depression.