Parental emotion regulation and preschoolers’ prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline

The potential mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline on the relations of parental emotion regulation strategies to children’s prosocial behavior were examined in this study. Sixty-four parents of preschoolers (50% girls) completed questionnaires assessing their own regulation practices (i.e., cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression), parenting behaviors (i.e., parental warmth/nurturance, inductive discipline), and children’s prosocial behavior (voluntary behavior intended to benefit another). The authors hypothesized that cognitive reappraisal would be positively and expressive suppression would be negatively related to parenting behaviors and children’s prosocial behavior. They further hypothesized that parental warmth and inductive discipline would mediate the relations between parents’ own regulation strategies and children’s prosocial behavior. Results demonstrated that parental cognitive reappraisal was positively associated with warmth, and expressive suppression was negatively associated with inductive discipline and children’s prosocial behavior. Parental warmth, but not inductive discipline, mediated the relations between cognitive reappraisal and children’s prosocial behavior. The results highlight adults’ own regulatory strategies as predictors of socialization behaviors and the potential processes for socialization of children’s moral emotions and positive social development.     

Links Between Perception of Parental Actions and Prosocial Behavior in Early Adolescence

We analyzed the links between parental styles, practices, and empathy and specific forms of prosocial behaviors in early adolescence. The Argentine scale of perception of relationships with parents for children and young adolescents, prosocial tendencies measure, parenting practices measure, and children’s perception of parental empathy were administered to a sample of 289 middle class children, aged 10–16, of both sexes, from primary and secondary schools in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Correlations and hierarchical regressions were used to examine (1) relationships between parental styles, children’s perception of parental empathy, parental practices, and children’s prosocial behavior, (2) the amount of unique prediction from parental styles, children’s perception of parental empathy, and parental practices to children’s prosocial behavior. Results indicated that different aspects of parental actions (parental styles, practice, and empathy) have a differential relation according to the type of prosocial behavior involved. When taking these three kinds of parental behavior into account, parental styles are related to public and responsive aspects especially through extreme control by the mother. Parental practices, in turn, are related mainly with anonymous and altruistic aspects, but with this latter negatively. Finally, adolescents’ perception of parental empathy explains added variance in all the cases, though to a lesser extent.     

Emerging Adult Risky Sexual Behavior Predicted by Parental Overprotection: Moderated Mediation Analysis

Parental control behaviors are suggested to be related to emerging adult outcomes, such as risky sexual behavior. Although parental control behaviors are more likely to be considered protective against risky sexual behavior, the relation between parental overprotection and risky sexual behavior is unclear. Furthermore, parental overprotection may influence peer selection and prosocial behaviors in emerging adults, which may in turn influence outcomes of risky sexual behavior, as suggested by primary socialization theory. Thus, the current study investigated the relations among paternal and maternal overprotection, emerging adult peer alienation, and risky sexual behavior, and expanded on these relations by examining gender effects of both parents and children. The sample consisted of 505 participants (228 males and 277 females) ranging in age from 18 to 25 years. Analyses were conducted with AMOS path analysis and indicated that peer alienation mediated the effect between both maternal and paternal perceived overprotection and risky sexual behavior, but more strongly for males, suggesting moderated mediation. Overall, parental overprotection may be protective against risky sexual behavior via pathways that are harmful such as peer alienation, thus recommending research continues to clarify the nuances of these relations.     

童年晚期亲社会行为与儿童的心理社会适应

对2097名六年级儿童(平均年龄12.27岁, 男生1093名)的亲社会行为以及多种心理社会适应指标进行测量, 主要运用个体定向的方法考察童年晚期亲社会行为与儿童心理社会适应之间的关系。结果发现:(1)亲社会行为与孤独感、攻击等不良适应呈中等程度负相关, 与同伴接纳、社交自我概念等积极适应呈中等程度正相关;(2)童年晚期儿童的心理社会适应表现为内化问题、外化问题、同伴拒绝与正常发展4种模式;(3)个体亲社会行为水平越高, 越可能属于正常发展组, 越不可能属于不良适应组;在各种不良适应组中, 个体亲社会行为水平越高, 更可能属于内化问题组, 而非外化问题和同伴拒绝组;(4)高亲社会组的儿童有6.8%存在内化问题;低亲社会组的儿童有50.2%适应良好;与普通儿童相比, 低亲社会组的儿童表现出更多的适应不良。     

儿童同伴信任和同伴接纳的关系:社会行为的中介效应及其性别差异

在金华市和杭州市两所市区普通小学, 选取366名3~6年级儿童为被试, 采用同伴互评、同伴提名法和班级戏剧问卷, 考察了社会行为在小学儿童同伴信任和同伴接纳间的中介效应及其性别差异。结果表明:(1)总体而言, 亲社会行为、退缩行为在儿童同伴信任和同伴接纳间存在显著的中介效应, 而攻击行为的中介效应不显著;(2)社会行为的中介效应存在性别差异。女生的同伴信任对亲社会行为的预测、亲社会行为对同伴接纳的预测作用都显著高于男生, 使得女生亲社会行为的中介效应大于男生。男女生的同伴信任对退缩行为的预测作用没有性别差异, 但是男生的退缩行为对同伴接纳的预测作用显著高于女生, 使得男生退缩行为的中介效应大于女生。     

父母冲突、青少年的认知评价及其与青少年社会适应的关系

以446名小学五年级至初中二年级的学生为被试,采用问卷法,让被试报告父母冲突形式、内容,对父母冲突的认知评价,以及抑郁、焦虑、自尊、学习问题和不良行为,以探讨父母冲突形式和内容、青少年对冲突的评价与其社会适应的关系,并检验认知评价在父母冲突与青少年适应间的中介作用。结果发现：（1）男女生除在父母情绪冲突和自尊方面的报告有显著差异外,其余各个方面都没有显著差异;随年级升高,儿童知觉的父母冲突内容显著增多,抑郁情绪、学习问题显著增多,而自尊水平显著下降;（2）父母冲突的不同形式和内容,以及青少年对父母冲突的不同认知评价可以预测青少年不同方面的社会适应;（3）认知评价在父母冲突与青少年的内部适应中起中介作用,但在父母冲突与青少年的外部适应中不起中介作用。     

班级环境变量对儿童社会行为与学校适应间关系的影响

运用同伴提名和问卷法,对82个城市初中班级的4650名学生进行了测试,并使用多水平分析技术探讨了班级环境变量对儿童社会行为和学校适应间关系的影响。结果显示：儿童的亲社会行为可以显著地正向预测其同伴接受和学业成就,儿童的攻击、退缩行为对学业成就和同伴接受有明显的负向预测效果;在班级环境变量方面,老师支持可以减弱退缩行为和学校适应间的负向联系;老师训诫不仅可以减弱攻击行为与同伴接受间的负向关联,并且对退缩行为与学业成就之间的负向联系也具有削弱效果;同学关系这一变量的班级效果最为明显,可以明显地增强儿童问题行为与学校适应间的负向联系;而班级秩序纪律对攻击行为和学校适应间的负向关联有明显的强化效果。     

Perceived Threat,Controlling Parenting,and Children's Achievement Orientations

Maternal perceptions of threat in the environment were examined as concomitants of controlling (vs. autonomy supportive) parenting. Forty mothers and their third-grade children were videotaped while completing homework-like tasks together. Maternal controlling (vs. autonomy supportive) behavior was measured both attitudinally by questionnaire, and behaviorally by coding of the videotapes. Mothers reported on their perceptions of environmental threat (worry, instability, scarcity). Results indicated that perceptions of threat were positively associated with controlling behaviors exhibited during the tasks, and negatively associated with children's motivation. Further, the relation between perceived instability and children's motivation was mediated by controlling parenting. Controlling parenting is associated with parental perceptions of threat and is one pathway through which threat may be associated with children's achievement goals.     

Toddlers' responses to the distress of their peers

Toddlers' spontaneous prosocial responses to their peer's crying distress were examined in this study. Forty-three children ranging in age from 16 to 33 months were observed as they interacted with their peers in day-care centers. Each child was observed for 16, 5-min periods. If a child cried, the response of the peer and the response of the teacher were recorded. Teachers independently identified peer friendships. Ninety-three percent of peer responses to cries were prosocial in nature. Children who responded more often prosocially to crying peers were the children who more often cried themselves. The response of the teacher to the child's own cry was related to that child's response to a peer. Children were more likely to respond to friends' cries than to cries of acquaintances.     

Parental, peer, and teacher influences on the social behavior of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents

Intensive interviews and self-report questionnaires were used to investigate parental, peer, and teacher influences on the prosocial and antisocial behaviors of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Students came from 5 academically different high schools. Results indicated that perceived parental influence was positively associated with frequency of prosocial behavior and negatively associated with frequency of delinquent behavior. Students with good relationships with their parents and peers showed lower frequencies of antisocial behaviors than did students with bad relationships. Adolescents in different identity statuses (achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion; E. H. Erikson, 1968) showed different patterns of prosocial and antisocial behaviors. For example, adolescents in the identity achievement group exhibited high frequencies of prosocial behaviors and low frequencies of antisocial behaviors, but those in the identity moratorium group exhibited quite high frequencies of both prosocial and antisocial behaviors.     

Parental,Peer, and Teacher Influences on the Social Behavior of Hong Kong Chinese Adolescents

Intensive interviews and self-report questionnaires were used to investigate parental, peer, and teacher influences on the prosocial and antisocial behaviors of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Students came from 5 academically different high schools. Results indicated that perceived parental influence was positively associated with frequency of prosocial behavior and negatively associated with frequency of delinquent behavior. Students with good relationships with their parents and peers showed lower frequencies of antisocial behaviors than did students with bad relationships. Adolescents in different identity statuses (achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion; E. H. Erikson, 1968) showed different patterns of prosocial and antisocial behaviors. For example, adolescents in the identity achievement group exhibited high frequencies of prosocial behaviors and low frequencies of antisocial behaviors, but those in the identity moratorium group exhibited quite high frequencies of both prosocial and antisocial behaviors.     

Parental discipline and affection and children's prosocial behavior: genetic and environmental links

The authors investigated genetic and environmental contributions to the relationships between children's (N=9,319 twin pairs) prosocial behavior and parental positivity and negativity toward them. Children's prosocial behavior was rated by parents at ages 3, 4, and 7 and by teachers at age 7. At each age, parents described their feelings and discipline toward each twin. Parental positivity was indexed by positive feelings and positive, non-coercive discipline, and parental negativity was indexed by negative feelings and coercive, punitive discipline. Genetics and the environment both contributed to individual differences in prosocial behavior and in parenting. At all ages, parental positivity correlated positively, and parental negativity correlated negatively with prosocial behavior. Genetic factors largely mediated the negative correlation between prosocial behavior and parental negativity. Shared environmental effects contributed mainly to the positive relationship between prosocial behavior and parental positivity. This pattern was found both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The findings point to the importance of children's characteristics and of the parent-child relationship in family processes.     

小学高年级儿童的学业成绩、亲社会行为与同伴接纳、拒斥的关系

本研究以小学高年级402名学生为研究对象,探讨了儿童的学业成绩、亲社会行为与同伴接纳、同伴拒斥之间的关系。结果发现:(1)不同学业成绩组儿童的亲社会行为存在显著差异,学习优秀儿童的亲社会行为水平最高,学习中等儿童居中,学习困难儿童的亲社会行为水平最低。(2)多元线性回归分析表明,儿童的亲社会行为能显著地正向预测其同伴接纳、负向预测其同伴拒斥;但学业成绩只能显著地正向预测同伴接纳,而对同伴拒斥无显著的预测作用。(3)亲社会行为对男、女生的同伴接纳的预测作用大于学业成绩的预测作用。     

幼儿情绪理解、亲社会行为与同伴接纳之间的关系

以131名3~6岁的儿童为被试,探讨了不同层次情绪理解能力的发展及其与儿童的亲社会行为、同伴接纳之间的关系。结果表明,儿童的表情识别、情绪解码和二级情绪理解能力表现出了不同的发展趋势;在总体上,儿童的情绪解码能力和亲社会行为能显著地预测其同伴接纳;情绪理解和亲社会行为对儿童同伴接纳的影响存在一定的年龄效应,情绪解码能力是年幼儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量,亲社会行为则是年长儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量。     

Ready to make nice: parental socialization of young sons' and daughters' prosocial behaviors with peers

In this study, the authors examined the extent to which maternal and paternal parenting styles, cognitions, and behaviors were associated with young girls' and boys' more compassionate (prototypically feminine) and more agentic (prototypically masculine) prosocial behaviors with peers. Parents of 133 preschool-aged children reported on their authoritative parenting style, attributions for children's prosocial behavior, and responses to children's prosocial behavior. Approximately 6 months later, children's more feminine and more masculine prosocial behaviors were observed during interactions with unfamiliar peers and reported on by their preschool teachers. Boys and girls did not differ in the observed and teacher-reported measures of prosocial behavior. Compared to other parents, fathers of boys were less likely to express affection or respond directly to children's prosocial behavior. Mothers' authoritative style, internal attributions for prosocial behavior, and positive responses to prosocial behavior predicted girls' displays of more feminine prosocial actions and boys' displays of more masculine prosocial actions toward peers. Relations were similar but weaker for fathers' parenting, and after accounting for mother' scores, fathers' scores accounted for unique variance in only one analysis: Teachers reported more masculine prosocial behavior in boys of fathers who discussed prosocial behavior. Overall, the results support a model of parental socialization of sex-typed prosocial behavior and indicate that mothers contribute more strongly than do fathers to both daughters' and sons' prosocial development.     

幼儿二级错误信念认知、亲社会行为与同伴接纳的关系

探讨了113名3~6岁儿童的二级错误信念认知、亲社会行为与同伴接纳之间的关系,结果表明：在总体上,儿童的亲社会行为是其同伴接纳的最佳预测变量;二级错误信念认知和亲社会行为对儿童同伴接纳的影响存在一定的年龄效应,二级错误信念认知是年幼组儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量,而亲社会行为则是年长组儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量。     

Socialization of prosocial behavior: Gender differences in the mediating role of child brain volume

Evidence has been accumulating for the impact of normal variation in caregiving quality on brain morphology in children, but the question remains whether differences in brain volume related to early caregiving translate to behavioral implications. In this longitudinal population-based study (N = 162), moderated mediation was tested for the relation between parental sensitivity and child prosocial behavior via brain volume, in boys and girls. Both maternal and paternal sensitivity were repeatedly observed between 1 and 4 years of age. Brain volume was assessed using magnetic resonance imaging measurements at age 8, and self-reported prosocial behavior of children was assessed at 9 years of age. Parental sensitivity was positively related to child brain volume, and to child prosocial behavior at trend level. Child brain volume was negatively related to child prosocial behavior. A significant gender-by-brain interaction was found, illustrating that daughters of sensitive parents were more prosocial and that less prosocial behavior was reported for girls with a larger total brain volume. Child gender significantly moderated the indirect effect of parental sensitivity on prosocial behavior via total brain volume. A significant indirect pathway was found only in girls. The results warrant replication but indicate the importance of considering gender when studying the behavioral implications of differences in brain volume related to early caregiving experiences.     

Re-Examining the Overjustification Effect

The purpose of the present investigation was to extend the research related to the possible negative side effects of extrinsic reinforcement on children's compliant behavior, particularly the overjustification effect. Specifically, this study examined the effects of a token reinforcement procedure in a naturalistic environment (third grade classroom) on children's compliance with classroom rules. Three students exhibiting high compliance with classroom rules were selected. Results indicated that the introduction of a token reinforcement program contingent on the occurrence of rule compliance had no detrimental effect on their rule compliant behavior following the withdrawal of the token procedure (i.e., comparison of Baseline I and Baseline II). Thus, the overjustification effect was not supported.     

Personal values as a mediator between parent and peer expectations and adolescent behaviors.

The current study examined the mediating role of adolescents' personal values on the relation between maternal and peer expectations for prosocial behaviors and adolescents' self-reported prosocial and antisocial behaviors. One hundred thirty-four adolescents (mean age = 16.22 years, 54% girls) completed measures of their own values and behaviors, as well as their perceptions of the positive expectations that their mother and their best friend(s) had for their (the adolescents') prosocial behaviors. Stepwise regression analyses suggested that adolescents' personal prosocial values mediated the relation between adolescents' perceptions of both maternal and peer expectations and adolescents' prosocial behaviors. In addition, for boys, perceptions of positive peer expectations were directly and negatively related to antisocial behaviors. The current study has important implications for parents, educators, and practitioners who are concerned about promoting adolescents' positive behaviors and discouraging negative behaviors.     

Maternal BIS Sensitivity, Overprotective Parenting, and Children's Internalizing Behaviors

Although sensitivity to the Behavioral Inhibition System within Gray's (1970) reinforcement sensitivity theory relates to individuals' own depressive and anxious symptomatology, less is known about how parental BIS sensitivity relates to early indicators of internalizing problems in young children. Moreover, the extent to which this parental characteristic relates to parenting behavior, and children's internalizing problems above and beyond parenting, remains unknown. The current study assessed maternal BIS sensitivity, overprotective parenting, and toddlers' internalizing behaviors in a sample of 91 mothers while controlling for mothers' own internalizing symptomatology. Heightened BIS sensitivity related to both overprotective parenting and internalizing behaviors. Overprotective parenting partially mediated the relation between BIS sensitivity and children's internalizing behaviors, although BIS sensitivity maintained a marginal relation to internalizing behaviors. Maternal BIS sensitivity and toddler internalizing behaviors may represent a shared disposition towards inhibition that is somewhat accounted for by overprotective parenting.