社会价值取向对自我社会奖赏加工的影响——来自ERPs的证据

社会价值取向(Social Value Orientation, SVO)是相互依存情境下人们对自己和他人分配结果的一种稳定的社会偏好, 按SVO不同可以将个体分为“亲社会取向”和“亲自我取向”个体。已有研究表明SVO影响个体对涉及自我金钱奖赏的结果评价加工, 而它如何影响自我社会奖赏加工过程尚不明确。本研究让亲社会取向和亲自我取向被试完成涉及自我社会奖赏(包含社会接纳和自我成就感)的猜牌建议给予任务, 同时记录其加工他人对建议的反馈(接受vs.拒绝)和他人最终结果(收益vs.损失)时诱发的脑电成分。结果发现, 在建议反馈加工阶段, 相比亲自我取向个体, 亲社会取向个体在反馈相关负波(FRN)波幅(峰-峰值)和P3平均波幅上, 建议被对方接受和被对方拒绝所诱发的波幅差异均显著; 在他人最终结果加工阶段, 建议被对方拒绝后, 对于亲社会取向个体, 对方损失诱发的反馈相关负FRN波幅比对方收益诱发的波幅更负, 而对方损失诱发的P3波幅小于对方收益诱发的波幅; 对于亲自我取向个体, 对方损失与收益诱发的FRN波幅无差异, 对方损失诱发的P3波幅显著大于对方收益诱发的波幅。这些结果表明社会价值取向调节个体对自我社会奖赏的加工。     

奖赏刺激的脑电反应特征跨文化差异:一个ERP研究

本研究从文化--社会神经科学的角度出发,采用事件相关电位的方法来探究不同文化背景下的个体对具有进化和社会文化代表性的正性刺激—奖赏刺激的脑电反应特征是否具有差异。本研究采用the Door Task实验范式考察了26名中国人和24名高加索白人对不同反馈反应的脑电特征跨文化差异。结果显示,负性反馈条件下诱发的FRN平均波幅比正性反馈条件诱发的平均脑电波幅更负,这种正负反馈的波幅差异只在中国被试中有体现。在P3成分上,在正性反馈条件下,中国被试诱发的脑电波幅大于西方被试,负性反馈条件下,两组无显著差异。研究结果表明,相对于西方被试,中国被试对奖赏反馈刺激可能具有较高的敏感性。这说明中西方文化下的个体对正负性反馈刺激的加工的脑电反应特征存在显著的差异。     

真实和虚拟金钱奖赏影响风险决策行为*

在风险情境下人类如何决策是长久以来心理学和经济学研究中一个极具挑战性的核心问题。众多研究采用真实或虚拟金钱作为奖赏强化物来探索风险决策行为的过程和机制,但对金钱奖赏真实性如何影响决策了解很少。仿真气球冒险任务(BART：Balloon Analogue Risk Task)可以在实验室条件下有效评估个体在真实社会中的风险行为。本研究采用 BART任务,通过两个实验探讨和比较了真实与虚拟金钱奖赏对风险决策行为的影响。实验一的结果发现,与虚拟金钱奖赏相比,真实金钱奖赏情境下的风险决策更容易受上一次决策结果的影响,上一次决策失败会导致被试的风险偏好水平显著降低(平均吹气球的次数显著减少),同时决策失败(气球吹爆)次数也显著减少,提示真实金钱奖赏下有更强的反馈学习效应。实验二重复了实验一的结果,并进一步发现,虚拟金钱奖赏的幅度对被试的风险决策行为没有影响,而真实金钱奖赏的幅度能显著改变被试的风险决策行为,较大幅度的真实金钱奖赏可以显著降低被试的风险偏好水平,但这种奖赏幅度对风险偏好的调控效应只对感觉寻求水平低的被试有效,感觉寻求水平高的被试不受影响。这些发现表明真实与虚拟金钱奖赏对风险决策行为有不同的影响。我们的结果可以用风险决策的后悔理论或齐当别模型来解释。     

海洛因戒断者对金钱奖赏的反馈加工异常：来自ERP的证据

本研究采用金钱奖赏延迟任务考察了海洛因戒断者对金钱奖赏和损失的预期和反馈加工及其电生理机制。结果发现,预期阶段两组被试由不同线索诱发的P3波幅不存在显著性差异。在金钱奖赏加工的反馈阶段,海洛因戒断组由金钱收益条件诱发的RewP波幅显著小于对照组由金钱收益条件诱发的RewP波幅,而在无收益无损失条件下两组被试诱发的RewP波幅不存在显著性差异。此外,海洛因戒断组由金钱收益条件诱发的P3波幅与无收益无损失条件诱发的P3波幅不存在显著性差异,而对照组由金钱收益条件诱发的P3波幅显著大于其由无收益无损失条件诱发的P3波幅。在金钱损失加工的反馈阶段,由金钱损失和无收益无损失条件诱发的RewP波幅在两组被试之间不存在显著性差异,且两组被试由金钱损失条件诱发的P3波幅均显著大于其由无收益无损失条件诱发的P3波幅。以上结果说明海洛因戒断者的金钱奖赏反馈加工存在异常,具体表现为其对金钱奖赏的敏感性降低或对金钱奖赏的趋近动机减弱。     

反馈相关负波与成瘾

反馈相关负波(feedback-related negativity, FRN)是反馈加工诱发的脑电成分, 体现了个体对奖赏的敏感性。成瘾分为物质成瘾和行为成瘾, 两类个体的反馈加工都呈现病理性模式。相对于普通反馈物(如金钱), 物质成瘾个体在加工成瘾物质时诱发的FRN波幅显著增大; 在与非成瘾被试的对照研究中, 物质成瘾者加工金钱反馈时的FRN也表现出与成瘾相关的异常模式; 在行为成瘾个体中亦观察到与物质成瘾个体类似的FRN失调现象。但以往多数研究中对成瘾类型的区分还不够详细, 未来研究应进一步考虑成瘾不同亚型的特点; 且成瘾个体往往伴随其他精神障碍(如抑郁、焦虑), 将来的研究要区分共病因素的影响, 揭示成瘾独特的奖赏加工机制问题。     

反馈对自我欺骗的影响：来自ERP的证据

本研究主要探讨反馈类型和反馈效价对自我欺骗的影响。实验1采用前瞻范式探究不同效价的模糊反馈对自我欺骗的影响, 结果发现, 相比于无答案提示组, 有答案提示组的被试在积极模糊反馈的条件下显著地提高测试2第二阶段的预测分数(自我欺骗的程度加重)。实验2探究不同效价的精确反馈对自我欺骗的影响, 结果发现, 相对于无答案提示组, 有答案提示组的被试在消极精确反馈条件下显著地降低测试2第二阶段的预测分数。实验3采用ERP技术探究反馈类型和反馈效价影响自我欺骗的内在机制, 结果发现, 模糊反馈条件下的自我欺骗诱发较大的P2成分、诱发较小的N1和N400成分; 以及发现自我欺骗在额区的效应较大。总之, 这些研究结果表明可能积极反馈促进个体的自我欺骗产生, 消极反馈削弱个体自我欺骗的产生; 积极模糊反馈能够进一步促进了个体自我欺骗的产生。这些研究结果还表明自我欺骗产生的背后机制可能是自我膨胀。     

选择一致性影响结果评价的ERP研究

本研究通过两个实验探讨了当被试主动做出与他人一致/不一致的选择行为(实验1)或看到他人做出与自己一致/不一致的选择行为(实验2)时,其选择行为的一致性是如何影响结果评价过程的。脑电数据表明在结果评价的早期阶段,无论被试是主动或被动地与他人做出相同选择,这种选择一致性都会放大输赢结果之间的差异:体现在选择一致情况下比不一致情况下诱发更大的d FRN。而在结果评价的晚期阶段,当被试先做出选择之后,看到他人做出与自己不一致的选择时(实验2),相比他人与自己选择一致时,诱发了更大的P3和LPP波幅。说明被试很可能把他人的不一致选择加工为一种冲突。因此投入了更多认知资源来加工这一结果。本研究是一个探索性的创新研究,首次从时间维度上分离了选择行为和结果反馈两个阶段,并提供了选择一致性对结果评价有影响作用的脑电证据。     

互动情境下个体对他人面部表情的加工受到他人社会地位的影响

前人研究表明他人的社会地位影响个体对其面部表情的加工,但是他人地位如何影响个体对其面部表情加工的神经机制并不清楚。本研究首先让被试完成时间估计任务,然后让评价者（高VS低地位）根据被试任务成绩给予面部表情（愉悦、中性和愤怒）反馈,同时记录被试加工评价者面部表情的ERP成分。脑电结果发现,在早期的P1阶段,当评价者给予愤怒和愉悦表情作为反馈评价刺激时,低地位评价者比高地位评价者诱发了更强的P1波幅;在N2加工阶段,只有当评价者给予愉悦表情作为反馈评价刺激时,高地位评价者比低地位评价者诱发的N2波幅更强;在后期P3加工阶段,只有当评价者给予愉悦表情作为反馈评价刺激时,低地位评价者比高地位评价者诱发了更强的P3波幅。当前研究结果说明评价者的地位不仅影响了个体对其面部表情加工的早期阶段,而且还影响了个体对其面部表情加工的后期阶段。     

利他惩罚中的结果评价—— ERP研究

利他惩罚是指个体为惩罚违反社会规范的人, 自愿支付成本。前人研究发现利他惩罚行为激活了背侧纹状体等与奖赏有关的脑区, 因此可以认为利他惩罚的结果是一种相当于金钱奖赏的正性结果, 不惩罚结果则是一种负性结果。本研究利用事件相关电位技术考察了被试在多次信任博弈游戏中观察“利他惩罚结果”和“不惩罚结果”的脑电成分, 结果发现被试产生了明显的反馈相关负波(feedback related negativity, FRN), 且负性程度更大的“不惩罚”结果其FRN波幅大于负性程度更小的“惩罚”结果。因为FRN是对负性反馈结果敏感的一个脑电成分。可见个体并非把利他惩罚结果知觉为一种正性结果, 因此FRN反映了对社会结果的情绪动机意义的评价。     

内隐自尊的稳定性--成败操纵对内隐自尊的影响

本研究以瑞文智力测验为成败操纵基本任务,对成败操纵前后、接受成功反馈和失败反馈的个体在内隐联想测验中的反应及其内隐自尊情况进行了分析研究,结果表明：(1)不论是接受成功反馈还是失败反馈,成败操纵后,被试的反应速度都显著地快于操纵前;(2)不论是接受成功反馈还是失败反馈,成败操纵后,被试的内隐自尊水平都显著地低于操纵前。内隐自尊易受即时的关于自我的情绪体验的影响,具有不稳定性,当个体兴奋水平、情绪唤醒水平较高,动机较为强烈时,内隐自尊作用将受到抑制。     

青少年反应性攻击和结果评价的ERPs研究：基于自我控制资源的视角

采用竞争反应时任务并结合ERPs技术,以39名高中生为有效被试,从自我控制资源的视角揭示青少年反应性攻击和结果评价的电生理机制。行为结果发现：高自我损耗者比低自我损耗者表现出更多攻击行为;ERPs结果发现：(1) 在攻击决策阶段,高自我损耗者前脑区域所诱发的P2波幅显著高于低自我损耗者;(2) 在结果评价阶段,“输”反馈比“赢”反馈诱发更负的FRN成分,且仅在“输”反馈条件下,高自我损耗者比低自我损耗者所诱发的FRN更负。从一定程度上说明自我损耗是导致青少年反应性攻击行为的重要原因,高自我损耗会加剧反应性攻击行为的发生。     

Facial and vocal cues of deception and honesty

Facial expressions and vocal cues (filtered speech) of honest and deceptive messages were examined in posed and spontaneous situations. The question of interest was the degree to which nonverbal cues transmit information about deception. Results indicated that (a) for both the facial and vocal channels, posing (as compared to spontaneous behavior) produced a higher level of communication accuracy; (b) facial expressions of deceptive (as compared to honest) messages were rated as less pleasant, while vocal expressions of deception were rated as less honest, less assertive, and less dominant, particularly in the posed condition; (c) the sender's ability to convey honesty was negatively correlated with his/her ability to convey deception, suggesting the existence of a demeanor bias—individual senders tend to appear and sound consistently honest (or dishonest) regardless of whether they deliver an honest or a deceptive message; (d) in the posing condition, the sender's abilities to convey honesty/deception via facial and vocal cues were positively and significantly correlated, whereas in the spontaneous condition they were not; and (e) senders whose full (unfiltered) speech indicated more involvement with their responses were judged as more honest from both their vocal (filtered speech) and facial cues, in both the honest and deceptive conditions.     

Feedback-related brain activity predicts learning from feedback in multiple-choice testing

Different event-related potentials (ERPs) have been shown to correlate with learning from feedback in decision-making tasks and with learning in explicit memory tasks. In the present study, we investigated which ERPs predict learning from corrective feedback in a multiple-choice test, which combines elements from both paradigms. Participants worked through sets of multiple-choice items of a Swahili–German vocabulary task. Whereas the initial presentation of an item required the participants to guess the answer, corrective feedback could be used to learn the correct response. Initial analyses revealed that corrective feedback elicited components related to reinforcement learning (FRN), as well as to explicit memory processing (P300) and attention (early frontal positivity). However, only the P300 and early frontal positivity were positively correlated with successful learning from corrective feedback, whereas the FRN was even larger when learning failed. These results suggest that learning from corrective feedback crucially relies on explicit memory processing and attentional orienting to corrective feedback, rather than on reinforcement learning.     

测谎中反馈加工的认知神经机制：一项ERP研究

在一个模拟“杀人——侦探”游戏情境中,被试先完成模拟杀人任务,在随后的测谎阶段使用有反馈的ERP测谎范式,以反馈的形式告知被试测谎结果（“+0.5”或“-2”,分别代表“撒谎逃过检测”或“撒谎被发现”）时的脑内时程动态变化。结果发现,在反馈出现后的200～300ms时间段,表示“撒谎被抓住”比“撒谎逃过检测”的反馈信息诱发了一个更正性的ERP成分（P200-300）,在300～400ms时间段,两种反馈诱发的ERP成分（P300）没有差异,而在450～500ms时间段, “撒谎逃过检测”比“撒谎被抓住”的反馈信息诱发了一个更负性的ERP成分（N500）,负性反馈没有诱发FRN。这些结果表明：P200-300、P300和N500都是与加工测谎结果信息有关的ERP成分。P200-300可能对测谎结果的效价（正性或负性）敏感;P300可能反映被试对测谎结果主观意义大小的评价;而N500可能反映测谎结果所导致的大脑皮层兴奋程度。     

P300和CNV在GKT的延时反应范式中测谎效果的分离

在杀人游戏情境中,设置无反馈和有反馈两个实验组,采用GKT（guilt knowledge test）的延时反应范式,考察P300和CNV两种ERP成分的测谎效果。结果发现：刺激呈现后大约450ms诱发了一个正性ERP成分（P300）,大约800ms诱发了一个负性ERP成分（CNV）。在有、无反馈两种实验范式下,P300和CNV两种测谎指标的变化情况发生了分离——有无反馈不影响P300峰值大小;而在有反馈条件下,“杀手”对于犯罪细节词语（探测刺激）的CNV明显增大。使用Bootstrap波幅差异分析法,分别计算P300和CNV在有、无反馈情况下的检出率,结果发现：两个指标的检出率在有、无反馈两种实验范式下的变化情况也发生了分离。这些结果表明：P300和CNV两个指标具有不同的测谎功能,这可能和它们所反映的不同欺骗心理过程有关。     

Personality and deception ability

Thirty-eight undergraduate subjects were administered the 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and a measure of sociopolitical attitudes and a week later took part in a videotaped deception task. Subjects were requested to give short, videorecorded presentations on different sociopolitical topics. The topics were chosen in order to assure that each subject would give two presentations that were consistent with their attitudes (truth-telling), two presentations that were counter-attitudinal (deceptive), and two presentations on neutral topics. The presentations were then viewed by volunteer judges who rated each on a scale of believability. Results indicated that outgoing and energetic subjects were more successful deceivers, and that apprehensive subjects were less successful deceivers, presumably due to honest/deceptive demeanor biases. Persons scoring high on social desirability and on the motivational distortion (lie) scale of the 16 PF, were also more successful at the deception task. These findings replicate and expand previous research on the role of individual differences in deception ability.     

Frontal cortex electrophysiology in reward- and punishment-related feedback processing during advice-guided decision making: An interleaved EEG-DC stimulation study

During decision making, individuals are prone to rely on external cues such as expert advice when the outcome is not known. However, the electrophysiological correlates associated with outcome uncertainty and the use of expert advice are not completely understood. The feedback-related negativity (FRN), P3a, and P3b are event-related brain potentials (ERPs) linked to dissociable stages of feedback and attentional processing during decision making. Even though these ERPs are influenced by both reward- and punishment-related feedback, it remains unclear how extrinsic information during uncertainty modulates these brain potentials. In this study, the effects of advice cues on decision making were investigated in two separate experiments. In the first experiment, electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded in healthy volunteers during a decision-making task in which the participants received reward or punishment feedback preceded by novice, amateur, or expert advice. The results showed that the P3a component was significantly influenced by the subjective predictive value of an advice cue, whereas the FRN and P3b were unaffected by the advice cues. In the second, sham-controlled experiment, cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (ctDCS) was administered in conjunction with EEG in order to explore the direct contributions of the frontal cortex to these brain potentials. Results showed no significant change in either advice-following behavior or decision times. However, ctDCS did decrease FRN amplitudes as compared to sham, with no effect on the P3a or P3b. Together, these findings suggest that advice information may act primarily on attention allocation during feedback processing, whereas the electrophysiological correlates of the detection and updating of internal prediction models are not affected.     

Bad Drives Psychological Reactions, but Good Propels Behavior: Responses to Honesty and Deception

ABSTRACT— Research across disciplines suggests that bad is stronger than good and that individuals punish deception more than they reward honesty. However, methodological issues in previous research limit the latter conclusion. Three experiments resolved these issues and consistently found the opposite pattern: Individuals rewarded honesty more frequently and intensely than they punished deception. Experiment 2 extended these counterintuitive findings by revealing a divergence between evaluation and behavior: Evaluative reactions to deception were stronger than those to honesty, but behavioral intentions in response to honesty were stronger than those in response to deception. In addition, individuals wanted to avoid deceivers more than they wanted to approach honest actors. Experiment 3 found that punishment, but not reward, frequencies were sensitive to costs. Moderated-mediation tests revealed the role of different psychological mechanisms: Negative affect drove punishments, whereas perceived trustworthiness drove rewards. Overall, bad appears to be stronger than good in influencing psychological reactions, but good seems to be stronger than bad in influencing behavior.     

Detecting concealed information using feedback related event-related brain potentials

Employing an event-related potential (ERP)-based concealed information test (CIT), the present study investigated (1) the neurocognitive processes when people received feedbacks regarding their deceptive/truthful responses and (2) whether such feedback-related ERP activities can be used to detect concealed information above and beyond the recognition-related P300. During the CIT, participants were presented with rare, meaningful probes (their own names) embedded within a series of frequent yet meaningless irrelevants (others’ names). Participants were instructed to deny their recognition of the probes. Critically, following participants’ responses, they were provided with feedbacks regarding whether they succeeded or failed in the CIT. Replicating previous ERP-based CITs, we found a larger P300 elicited by probe compared to irrelevant. Regarding feedback-related ERPs, a temporospatial Principle Component Analyses found two ERP components that were not only sensitive to feedback manipulations but also can discriminate probe from irrelevant: an earlier, central-distributed positivity that was elicited by “success” feedbacks peaked around 219 ms; and a later, right central-distributed positivity that was also elicited by “success” feedbacks, peaked around 400 ms. Importantly, the feedback ERPs were not correlated with P300 that was elicited by probe/irrelevant, suggesting that these two ERPs reflect independent processes underlying memory concealment. These findings illustrate the feasibility and promise of using feedback-related ERPs to detect concealed memory and thus deception.     

欺骗任务中结果评价的FN效应

在认知任务中,结果评价阶段由负性反馈信息诱发的ERP相对于正性反馈信息诱发的ERP,表现出一个相对负走向的波形变化,称为反馈负波（Feedback Negativity,FN）。实验采用模拟现实生活中替人点钞情境中的欺骗行为作为任务,要求被试对看到的人民币图片按键报告其真假,同时对其中的真币图片可以做出欺骗性反应,即故意报告其为假币并力争“欺骗”计算机,从而创造出欺骗失败减钱和欺骗成功加钱两种不同效价的结果。并通过1元、5元和10元三种不同面额的人民币图片,考察FN是否反映对结果信息中得失量的评价,以及不同预期强度水平对FN的影响。结果发现,FN只受结果效价、而不受数额或预期强度水平的影响。此外,FN的发生源可能位于扣带前回附近。实验结果支持了FN的现代二分理论,说明FN可能反映了基于结果与预期是否一致方面的“好”、“坏”简单快速评价