Preferred recall order and recall accuracy for two messages presented simultaneously over a single auditory channel

Ss in the dichotic listening task prefer, and are more accurate with, the channel-by-channel order of recall-recalling all information presented to one ear followed by the information presented to the other ear. Current explanations for these effects rely upon the fact that the two messages are presented over separate input channels. The present study tested this hypothesis directly by presenting two messages simultaneously to a single auditory channel. Groups of Ss were instructed to recall two pairs of digits presented simultaneously over a single channel (1) in any order (free recall), (2) in the order received (simultaneous order), or (3) in sequential groups (successive order). Ss in the free recall task preferred recalling items in successive order. However, Ss instructed to recall in simultaneous order were as accurate as those instructed to recall in successive order. These data imply that accuracy with, but not preference for, the successive order of recall depends upon whether input is to one or two channels.     

Boundary conditions for the modality effect: Type of material and time of test

Recall of auditory and visually presented information was studied using three different types of material. Although auditory presentation was superior for all three types of material, the size and pattern of the effect depended upon whether the visual presentation was successive or simultaneous. Successive visual presentation reduced recall performance compared to auditory presentation considerably for real sentences, while smaller effects were obtained for noun sequences and scrambled sentences. The overall supremacy in recall of auditory presented items was reduced further when compared to a simultaneous visual presentation. In the last two experiments, all effects of modality of presentation obtained in immediate recall were replicated, but were eliminated in delayed recall. The finding that this modality effect is eliminated in delayed recall is taken to indicate that semantic aspects of the material to be remembered are by and large unaffected by mode of presentation, while more superficial aspects are the ones influenced.     

Stimulus suffixes and visual presentation

Seven experiments studied whether irrelevant visual stimuli (stimulus suffixes) would interfere with immediate serial recall of supraspan lists of digits presented visually. Across experiments a wide number of conditions were run, varying in method of presentation (sequential or simultaneous), rate of list presentation, and presence or absence of articulatory suppression. In no condition did a visual suffix have a significant detrimental effect on recall. These results stand in marked contrast to those found when auditory lists and suffixes have been used.     

Auditory versus visual processing of three sets of simultaneous digit pairs.

Two experiments were conducted to determine whether the auditory and visual systems process simultaneously presented pairs of alphanumeric information differently. In Experiment 1, different groups of subjects were given extensive practice recalling pairs of superimposed visual or auditory digits in simultaneous order (the order of arrival) or successive order (one member of each digit pair in turn, followed by the other pair member). For auditory input, successive order of recall was more accurate, particularly for the last two of three pairs presented, whereas for visual input, simultaneous order of recall was more accurate. In Experiment 2, subjects were cued to recall in one or the other order either immediately before or after stimulus input. Recall order results were the same as for Experiment 1, and precuing did not facilitate recall in either order for both modalities. These results suggest that processing in the auditory system can only occur successively across time, whereas as in the visual system processing can only occur simultaneously in space.     

Successive vs simultaneous processing of superimposed visual stimuli

A visual analogue of Savin’s (1967) auditory task was used to examine preferred order of recall and order of recall accuracy for two pairs of visually superimposed digits. Savin (1967) and Rollins, Everson, and Schurman (1972) found that Ss preferred to recall simultaneous auditory information in successive order, even though the information was presented over a single channel. In the present experiments, Ss were found to prefer strongly to recall visual information in simultaneous order. On the other hand, the results of Rollins et al (1972), that Ss are equally accurate when forced to recall simultaneous auditory information in either the preferred or nonpreferred mode, were replicated for this visual task. The results of these experiments, together with the experiment reported by Rollins et al (1972), indicate that verbal information is processed differently by these two sensory systems.     

Short-term memory as a function of input modality

The two experiments reported are concerned with short-term memory for digit lists simultaneously presented both auditorily and visually. Results showed (1) that interpolated written and verbal recall differentially affect retention depending on whether the to-be-recalled list was presented auditorily or visually. (2) That input modality appears to be far more important for recall than was directing subjects' attention to a list during input, when that list might or might not have been subsequently required for recall. The results suggest that short-term storage is modality specific. In this case, Broadbent's P and S mechanisms do not adequately describe what happens during simultaneous visual and auditory presentation. Nor would Sperling's suggestion of a final auditory store appear to be supported.     

Recency and suffix effects with immediate recall of olfactory stimuli

In contrast to our understanding of the immediate recall of auditory and visual material, little is known about the corresponding characteristics of short-term olfactory memory. The current study investigated the pattern of immediate serial recall and the associated suffix effect using olfactory stimuli. Subjects were trained initially to identify and name correctly nine different odours. Experiment 1 established an immediate correct recall span of approximately six items. In Experiment 2 participants recalled serially span equivalent lists which were followed by a visual, auditory, or olfactory suffix. Primacy was evident in the recall curves for all three suffix conditions. Recency, in contrast, was evident in the auditory and visual suffix conditions only; there was a strong suffix effect in the olfactory suffix condition. Experiment 3 replicated this pattern of effects using seven-item lists, and demonstrated that the magnitude of the recency and suffix effects obtained in the olfactory modality can equate to that obtained in the auditory modality. It is concluded that the pattern of recency and suffix effects in the olfactory modality is reliable, and poses difficulties for those theories that rely on the presence of a primary linguistic code, sound, or changing state as determinants of these effects in serial recall.     

Recency and suffix effects with immediate recall of olfactory stimuli

In contrast to our understanding of the immediate recall of auditory and visual material, little is known about the corresponding characteristics of short-term olfactory memory. The current study investigated the pattern of immediate serial recall and the associated suffix effect using olfactory stimuli. Subjects were trained initially to identify and name correctly nine different odours. Experiment 1 established an immediate correct recall span of approximately six items. In Experiment 2 participants recalled serially span equivalent lists which were followed by a visual, auditory, or olfactory suffix. Primacy was evident in the recall curves for all three suffix conditions. Recency, in contrast, was evident in the auditory and visual suffix conditions only; there was a strong suffix effect in the olfactory suffix condition. Experiment 3 replicated this pattern of effects using seven-item lists, and demonstrated that the magnitude of the recency and suffix effects obtained in the olfactory modality can equate to that obtained in the auditory modality. It is concluded that the pattern of recency and suffix effects in the olfactory modality is reliable, and poses difficulties for those theories that rely on the presence of a primary linguistic code, sound, or changing state as determinants of these effects in serial recall.     

Perceptual processing in dichotic listening.

Subjects heard two lists of 4 items each presented simultaneously to the two ears at a rate of four pairs of items per sec. A recall cue presented immediately after the test list signalled report of 4 of the 8 items. In recall by spatial location, the cue indicated whether the items on the right ear on left ear should be recalled. In recall by category name, the cue indicated the superset category (e.g., letters or words) of the items to be recalled. Recall by spatial location was not significantly different than recall by category name. This results argues against the idea of a preperceptual auditory storage that holds information along spatial channels for 1 or 2 sec. The final experiment showed that recall by spatial location is significantly better than recall by category name when the report cue is given before, not after, the list presentation. These results show that spatial location can be used to enhance semantic processing and/or memory of 1 of 2 simultaneous items, but only if the relevant location is known at the time of the item presentation.     

Exploring the superadditive effects of scent and pictures on verbal recall: An extension of dual coding theory

This research extends the dual coding theory of memory retrieval (Paivio 1969, 2007) beyond its traditional focus on verbal and pictorial information to olfactory information. We manipulate the presence or absence of olfactory and pictorial stimuli at the time of encoding (study 1) or retrieval (study 2) and measure the impact on verbal recall. After a time delay, scent enhances recall of verbal information, and scent-based retrieval cues potentiate the facilitative effect of pictures on recall. These results cannot be attributed merely to increased elaboration at the time of exposure.     

Attention in bisensory simultaneous short-term memory

Subjects were presented with simultaneously visual and auditory material. They were instructed to attend to only one modality but were required to recall materials from both modalities, one before the other. Results supported a previous suggestion that visual recall is minimum under conditions of simultaneous presentation. That is, in situations where S is allowed to divide his attention between both inputs, visual recall was no greater than when his attention was directed away from visual input and to auditory input. It was noted that this difference in recall between the two modalities was limited to verbal material, as other data indicate the opposite effect for nonverbal material.     

Scenting movie theatre commercials: The impact of scent and pictures on brand evaluations and ad recall

We utilize a novel advertising context—commercials seen in a simulated movie theater setting while ambient scent is emitted into the atmosphere—to explore the effects of multisensory cues on brand evaluation and advertising recall. Although both pictorial and olfactory cues enhance brand evaluations and ad recall overall, we find that olfactory (vs pictorial) cues generate more positive feelings toward the brand and enhance recall to a greater extent. We also find that, after a long time delay, re‐experiencing the scent activates pictures' ability to facilitate recall. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The combining of multiple hemispheric resources in learning-disabled and skilled readers' recall of words: a test of three information-processing models

Three theoretical models (additive, independence, maximum rule) that characterize and predict the influence of independent hemispheric resources on learning-disabled and skilled readers' simultaneous processing were tested. Predictions related to word recall performance during simultaneous encoding conditions (dichotic listening task) were made from unilateral (dichotic listening task) presentations. The maximum rule model best characterized both ability groups in that simultaneous encoding produced no better recall than unilateral presentations. While the results support the hypothesis that both ability groups use similar processes in the combining of hemispheric resources (i.e., weak/dominant processing), ability group differences do occur in the coordination of such resources.     

Noradrenergic control of odor recognition in a nonassociative olfactory learning task in the mouse

The present study examined the influence of pharmacological modulations of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system on odor recognition in the mouse. Mice exposed to a nonrewarded olfactory stimulation (training) were able to memorize this odor and to discriminate it from a new odor in a recall test performed 15 min later. At longer delays (30 or 60 min), the familiar odor was no longer retained, and both stimuli were perceived as new ones. Following a post-training injection of the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist dexefaroxan, the familiar odor was still remembered 30 min after training. In contrast, both the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist UK 14304 and the noradrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 prevented the recognition of the familiar odor 15 min after the first exposure. Noradrenaline release in the olfactory bulb, assessed by measurement of the extracellular noradrenaline metabolite normetanephrine, was increased by 62% following dexefaroxan injection, and was decreased by 38%-44% after treatment with UK 14304 and DSP-4. Performance of mice in the recall test was reduced by a post-training injection of the beta-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol or the alpha(1)-antagonist prazosin, thus implicating a role for beta- and alpha(1)-adrenoceptors in the facilitating effects of noradrenaline on short-term olfactory recognition in this model.     

Dream recall frequency by socioeconomic status of Chinese students

Whereas the effect of sex and age on dream recall have been studied widely, socioeconomic status has rarely been investigated. However, two studies reported that higher socioeconomic status was related to greater frequency of dream recall. In the present sample of 612 Chinese students from three different schools, one elite (high socioeconomic status), one rural (low socioeconomic status) and one intermediate, analysis of variance indicated no significant association between frequency of dream recall and socioeconomic status. Researchers could investigate whether "dream socialization," e.g., encouragement of a child to remember his dreams, depends on socioeconomic background, whether these processes are mediated by culture.     

Reduction and elimination of format effects on recall

Two experiments investigated whether the recall advantage of pictures and spoken words over printed words in working memory (Foos & Goolkasian, 2005; Goolkasian & Foos, 2002) could be reduced by manipulating letter case and sequential versus simultaneous presentation. Participants were required to remember 3 or 6 items presented in varied presentation formats while verifying the accuracy of a sentence. Presenting words in alternating uppercase and lowercase improved recall, and presenting words simultaneously rather than successively removed the effect of presentation format. The findings suggest that when forcing participants to pay attention to printed words you can make them more memorable and thereby diminish or remove any disadvantage in the recall of printed words in comparison with pictures and spoken words.     

Simultaneity in Processing of Verbal and Spatial Information

Recent studies involving recall of verbal and spatial information produced conflicting results. In some cases investigators found males recalled verbal and spatial information equally well whereas females did less well on spatial than verbal information, but in other cases no sex differences were found. They also differed in that one study found processing of verbal and spatial information to be independent whereas others suggested trade-offs might occur. Using college-age subjects (17-25 yrs) with equal numbers of males and females (total n = 186) two experiments were performed to examine these differences. Although overall differences were found favoring verbal recall, females’ recall of spatial information was relatively poorer than males. Using a procedure designed to avoid possible artifactual depression of combined performance, we concluded that processing of spatial and verbal information is simultaneous in nature.

     

Interactive presentation in multitrial free recall

This paper explores whether free recall performance and organization can be facilitated using computer-controlled interactive presentation, where stimulus presentation on Trial N+1 depends on the individual subject’s prior recall history. A series of experiments investigated the effects of two types of response-contingent presentation order manipulations and of selective tagging manipulation designed to highlight the presentation of previously nonrecalled items. An initial experiment using 20-word lists showed no differences among groups, due to a ceiling effect. Two subsequent experiments, using longer lists (30 and 40 words), found that recall and subjective organization were increased by selective tagging and by presentation orders that preserved the subject’s prior order of recall. The results demonstrate that subjects’ previous recall histories contain information that can be used to facilitate recall. The potential of other interactive manipulations is discussed.     

Dual coding versus relational processing in memory for concrete and abstract words

In two experiments, participants judged whether nouns fitted particular sentence frames and then received an unanticipated recall test with the sentence frames as cues. Concrete nouns were better recalled than abstract nouns, and nouns presented in meaningful sentence frames were better recalled than nouns presented in anomalous sentence frames. In Experiment 2, performance in a test of free recall was positively related to the concreteness of the nouns but unrelated to the meaningfulness of the sentence frames. The increase in performance from free recall to cued recall was positively related to the meaningfulness of the sentence frames but not significantly related to the concreteness of the nouns. The effects of concreteness and meaningfulness showed no sign of any interaction either in their effects on recall performance or in their effects on the advantage of cued recall over free recall. These results are consistent with the dual-coding theory of imagery and verbal processes but are not consistent with either of two different interpretations of the relational-distinctiveness processing theory.     

The Effects of Discussion on Eyewitness Memory1

This study investigated the effects of witness discussion on the accuracy of recall and misidentifications in eyewitness memory. Dyadic groups who discussed the crime and dyads who made joint memorial decisions about the incident were more accurate in recall than were dyads who discussed noncriminal matters, and a no-discussion group. Collaborative dyads giving joint decisions also were significantly more accurate than were the other groups in rejection of the culprit-absent lineup. The sequential lineup method proved superior to the simultaneous method, regardless of whether or not witnesses discussed the crime prior to identification. It was concluded that discussion and joint decision making by 2 eyewitnesses can improve both eyewitness recall and minimize false identifications in some circumstances.