Irrational beliefs in major depression and generalized anxiety disorders in an Iranian sample: a preliminary study

Previous research on Rational Emotive Theory using western samples has shown that irrational belief systems are associated with emotional disorders such as anxiety and depression. In a replication of this work the present study was conducted to compare the scores of 29 clinically depressed, 31 clinically anxious, and 34 normal controls on the Irrational Beliefs Test in an Iranian sample. Consistent with Ellis's theory, depressed and anxious patients scored higher than the controls on scores for the full scale and all 10 subscales of the Irrational Beliefs Test. Also, the two patient groups differed significantly in their endorsement of 2 out of 10 irrational belief subscales but not in overall score on irrational beliefs. Results were interpreted in light of previous literature.     

Irrational and Metacognitive Beliefs Mediate the Relationship Between Content Beliefs and GAD Symptoms: A Study on a Normal Population

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Metacognitive Therapy (MCT) models show both similarities and differences in conceptualizing anxiety. This work assumes that REBT’s irrational and MCT’s metacognitive beliefs play a mediation role while CBT’s disorder specific content beliefs act as triggers. This hypothesis is tested using a regression model in which metacognitive and irrational beliefs play a mediation role while content disorder beliefs are independent variables. This paper applied this model to generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), a psychiatric diagnosis in which anxiety is the major feature. In GAD, the specific content beliefs are negative problem orientation and intolerance of uncertainty. Therefore, 149 non clinical subjects completed 4 self-report questionnaires: the Negative Orientation to the Problems Questionnaire and the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale as measures for content cognitive beliefs, the Attitudes and Beliefs Scale for irrational beliefs, and the Metacognitive Questionnaire 30 Items Version for metacognitive beliefs. The generalized anxiety disorder questionnaire was chosen in order to measure anxiety as dependent variable. Regression analyses confirmed that irrational and metacognitive beliefs mediate the relation between cognitive content beliefs and GAD. We clinically interpret mediation as a second level regulation.     

An experimental test of a core REBT hypothesis: evidence that irrational beliefs lead to physiological as well as psychological arousal

While numerous studies support Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and Theory (REBT), they tend to be limited by their use of correlational designs, simulated scenarios and self-report measures. This study tested a core REBT hypothesis in an experimental design using multiple physiological as well as psychological measures. Ninety patients from a medical practice were placed in a real-life stressful situation while holding either a rational, an irrational, or an indifference belief. Those holding a rational belief reported the greatest increase in concern whereas those holding an irrational belief reported the greatest increase in anxiety. Of particular significance, those holding a rational belief showed a decrease in systolic blood pressure whereas those holding an irrational belief showed an increase (diastolic blood pressure increased in both conditions). These results not only support the core REBT hypothesis, but also suggest a way to differentiate between beliefs and emotions by measuring physiological as well as psychological changes.     

Exploring the Effects of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy on the Irrational Beliefs and Self-Determined Motivation of Triathletes

The present study addresses proposals that Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) can influence self-determined motivation. Triathletes received REBT education, followed by either Rational Emotive Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing (REPDMS) or Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing. Measurements of irrational beliefs and self-determined motivation were collected prior to REBT (baseline), during the REBT education period, and after the REPDMS session (postintervention). An ABC single-case design was adopted, allowing for statistical and visual analysis of data over time and between groups. Findings indicate that REBT led to decreased irrational beliefs and increased self-determined motivation. REPDMS appeared to have no influence on irrational beliefs over and above REBT education.     

Belief in good luck and psychological well-being: the mediating role of optimism and irrational beliefs

The authors examined the relationship of belief in good luck with depression and anxiety within the context of a number of cognitive and personality variables used to explain depression and anxiety. Undergraduate students (46 men, 98 women) were administered measures of belief in good luck, depression, anxiety, optimism, neuroticism, attribution style, self-esteem, and irrational beliefs. The results showed that belief in good luck was significantly related to optimism and irrational beliefs. A number of models were tested to determine whether irrational beliefs or optimism mediated the relationship between belief in good luck and depression and anxiety. The findings suggested that negative relationships between belief in good luck and both depression and anxiety are best addressed by the theory that belief in good luck engenders optimistic traits and a reduced level of irrational beliefs.     

Core beliefs,automatic thoughts and response expectancies in predicting public speaking anxiety

The present study examined the relationships between broad core cognitions, situation-specific automatic thoughts, and response expectancies in regard to their relative contributions to public speaking anxiety. Ninety-nine socially anxious participants (mean age = 20.25) completed measures of irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts specific to public speaking. Participants were then announced the task – giving a speech in front of a virtual reality audience – and response expectancies were measured. Subjective anxiety was measured just before the speech. As predicted, response expectancies and negative automatic thoughts specific to public speaking were each found to mediate the relationship between irrational beliefs and public speaking anxiety. Multiple mediation analysis indicated that the core irrational beliefs generated specific beliefs (i.e., response expectancies that primed automatic thoughts) that acted on speech-related anxiety.     

Irrational Cognitions and the Fear of Flying

In order to test the hypothesis that the fear of flying is associated with irrational evaluative beliefs, as postulated by Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy for anxiety disorders, 15 fearful flyers and 7 non-fearful flyers participated in the Articulated Thoughts during Simulated Situations procedure. Six experimental scenes depicting some basic fears associated with the fear of flying and six supposedly non-anxiety provoking flight-related control scenes were used. The fear of flying group displayed significantly more irrational thoughts and significantly higher subjective ratings of anxiety on all experimental and five control scenes compared to the non-fearful flyers. Their negative cognitions were predominantly characterized by awfulizing and low frustration tolerance. The results are interpreted as offering support for the cognitive view that anxiety, and the fear of flying, are associated with negative cognitions characterized by a preoccupation with danger and with an overestimation of the seriousness of the perceived threat (awfulizing) and an underestimation of coping abilities (low frustration tolerance).     

Irrational Beliefs and Behavioral Misregulation in the Role of Alcohol Abuse Among College Students

Two hundred three alcohol-using college students completed a questionnaire on their levels of alcohol use, moderate to severe problems with alcohol use, and measures of life stress, impulsivity, compulsivity, irrational beliefs, and depression. While impulsivity significantly predicted both alcohol use and problems, stress, compulsivity, irrational beliefs, and depression were found to only be significant predictors of alcohol use problems. When irrational beliefs, impulsivity, and compulsivity were combined to form an irrational coping scale, this construct was found in multiple regression analyses to completely mediate the effect of stress on alcohol use problems, while depression was a partial mediator of this effect. Results were interpreted in terms of Rational Emotive Behavior Theory.     

Testing the REBT-I model in athletes: Investigating the role of self-confidence between irrational beliefs and psychological distress

Evidence suggests that, in the general population, instances of poor mental health have increased over recent years and are set to continue to grow. Athletes may experience a plethora of additional stressors, such as injury, de-selection, and competitive anxiety. Prior research has suggested that irrational beliefs may maladaptively influence an athlete’s wellbeing, but little is known about the role of self-confidence in these relationships. The present study aimed to examine the role which self-confidence plays as part of the REBT-I model in athletes. Broadly speaking, it was hypothesised that primary irrational beliefs would relate negatively to self-confidence through secondary irrational beliefs. In turn, self-confidence was hypothesised to relate negatively to competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms. Additionally, irrational beliefs were hypothesised to combine with low self-confidence to relate negatively to competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms. Four hundred and ten athletes (n = 227 females, Mage = 33.91 years, SD = 14.84) completed an online questionnaire pack assessing irrational beliefs, self-confidence, cognitive and somatic competitive anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Using path analysis, the tested hypothesised model demonstrated an excellent fit to the data. Findings demonstrate some support for the REBT-I model in that primary irrational beliefs predict competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms through secondary irrational beliefs. Results extend the REBT-I model by including self-confidence as a mediating factor between depreciation beliefs and competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms. Findings suggest practitioners should be aware of the role that irrational beliefs may have in negatively influencing self-confidence and subsequent depression symptomology in athletes.     

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Elderly People

Several therapies have been adapted for use with elderly people, including Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT). These two therapies emphasize the importance of irrational or dysfunctional beliefs in the creation of emotional disturbance, and tend to use a number of cognitive, emotive, and behavioral methods of disputing and changing these beliefs for more functional ones. Some of the main therapeutic techniques used in REBT and CBT are presented in this paper.     

Irrational Beliefs and Socio-Political Extremism

This paper discusses the role of irrational beliefs and socio-political extremism. A central feature of extremist ideology involves utopian beliefs regarding the perfectability of individuals or society. The relationship between these ideas and the absolute beliefs described in Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is considered.     

The nature of irrational and rational beliefs: Progress in rational emotive behavior theory

This paper discusses some limitations of Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. It is suggested that the present definition of irrational and rational beliefs is inadequate. The present theory is unclear whether irrational beliefs are exaggerated negative evaluations or empirical distortions of reality. It is proposed that irrational beliefs are core schemes, and that the concept of schema replace the present definition of beliefs. Ellis's position that demandingness is at the center of irrational thinking and emotional disturbance is examined. Research has failed to support this theory. It is proposed that demandingness and self-downing may be separate types of core irrational schemes. Research strategies are suggested that could test Ellis's position on the centrality of demandingness and on the nature of irrational beliefs in general.It is also suggested that irrational beliefs differ on their level of abstraction. The present REBT theory fails to identify which level of abstraction is necessary to cause disturbance, at which level of abstraction therapists should seek change, and whether a therapist should intervene first at higher or lower levels of abstract beliefs. It is suggested that a therapist only seek change to the level of abstraction that matches the client's concerns and that therapists begin to intervene at lower levels of abstraction and move up to more abstract cognitions as therapy progresses.The Institute for Rational Emotive Therapy     

Irrational Beliefs in Employees with an Adjustment,a Depressive,or an Anxiety Disorder: a Prospective Cohort Study

It remains unclear if patients with different types of common mental disorders, such as adjustment, anxiety and depressive disorders, have the same irrational ideas. The aim of this prospective cohort study (n = 190) is to investigate differences in level and type of irrational beliefs among these groups and to examine whether a change in irrational beliefs is related to symptom recovery. Irrational beliefs (IBI) and symptoms were measured at four points in time: at baseline, after 3, 6 and 12 months. Results showed that diagnostic groups differed in their level of irrational beliefs and this effect remained over time. Highest levels of irrationality were observed in the double diagnosis group, followed by the anxiety disorder group and the depression group. Participants with adjustment disorders showed the lowest levels of irrationality, comparable to a community sample. We did not find differences in the type of irrational beliefs between diagnostic groups. The level of irrationality declined over time for all diagnostic groups. No differences in decrease were observed between diagnostic groups. The magnitude and direction of change in irrational beliefs were related to the magnitude of recovery of depressive, anxiety and stress symptoms over time. These results support the application of general cognitive interventions, especially for patients with a depressive or an anxiety disorder.     

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Severity and Depression: The Role of Secondary Beliefs

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a poorly understood illness that is characterized by profound and prolonged exhaustion and has no clear pathological marker. This study investigated the role of illness severity and secondary beliefs in depression among a CFS cohort, using the A–B–C framework of Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy. Empirical research has consistently found that CFS patients tend to hold more negative cognitions about their illness, which could be associated with greater severity and emotional deficits. Specifically, secondary beliefs were explored as a mediating factor; as evidence suggests that secondary beliefs can result in dysfunctional emotions and/or behaviors, such as depression. Furthermore, it is estimated that up to 80% of CFS patients concurrently have depression. There were 156 participants with CFS who completed a questionnaire pack, which included the revised version of the Illness Perception Questionnaire, the Secondary Beliefs Scale (SBS), and the Cardiac Depression Scale. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that secondary beliefs mediated the relationship between illness severity and depression. Specifically, the approval and comfort subscales of the SBS were significantly associated with depression. The current findings indicated that secondary beliefs could be an important focus in treatment of depression in chronic illness. As the mediating role of secondary beliefs is a new research finding, it is advised that further exploratory research is required.     

Cognitive-Behavioral Constructs and Children's Behavioral and Emotional Problems

Each cognitive behavior therapy has produced research concerning the cognitive construct it posits to mediate psychopathology. This study attempted to compare the major cognitive behavioral constructs to determine how they are related to each other and how each is related to teachers' perception of externalized and internalized behavioral and emotional problems. Children between the ages of 9 to 13 were classified as internalized, externalized, mixed, or no behavior and emotional problems groups according to their scores on the Teacher's Report Form of the Child Behavior Checklist and teachers' ratings on the Walker Problem Identification Scale. Measures of Ellis' (1962) irrationality, Beek's (1976) negative automatic thoughts, Spivack's (Spivack, Platt, & Shure, 1976) social problem skills, and Meichenbaum's (1977) guiding self statements were administered to the children. The results indicated that the various cognitive constructs were only moderately correlated with each other. Irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions were correlated higher than other comparisons. The correlations between the measures of the constructs suggest they are slightly related but represent different constructs. The emotional and behavioral problems groups scored higher than the no problems group on some subtest of irrational beliefs and negative cognitive thoughts. Also, the measures of emotional and behavior problems correlated significantly with some subtest of irrational beliefs and negative automatic thoughts. Irrational beliefs appeared to be related to internalized and externalized emotional and behavioral problems, while negative automatic thoughts appeared to be best related to internalized emotional and behavioral problems. The measures of problem solving skills and guiding self statements appear to be best related to externalized problems.     

Cognitive therapy with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparative evaluation.

After a 4-week waiting period 21 obsessive-compulsives were randomly allocated to two treatment conditions (1) Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) and (2) exposure in vivo. RET consisted of analysing irrational thoughts; exposure in vivo was self-controlled. After six sessions and another 4-week waiting period all patients received six sessions of exposure in vivo. Both treatments resulted in significant improvement on anxiety/discomfort, Maudsley Obsessional Compulsive Inventory, and Dutch Obsessional Compulsive Questionnaire and in a reduction of scores on the Irrational Beliefs Test. Results were maintained to a follow-up 6 months later. No significant differences were found between the two conditions.     

Frustration Intolerance Beliefs as Predictors of Emotional Problems in University Undergraduates

The present study examined the relationship between Frustration Intolerance Beliefs as suggested by the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy framework and emotional problems. Data were collected from 332 university undergraduate students (age 19–26) who completed Demographic Information Sheet, Frustration Discomfort Scale and three subscales of Brief Symptom Inventory including depression, anxiety and hostility. The current findings confirmed the association between frustration intolerance and irrational beliefs and their respective roles in psychological distress among non-clinical student population. Results indicated that FDS subscales were differently related to specific emotions as entitlement and emotional intolerance sub-scales were significantly positively associated with depression, anxiety, and hostility while achievement was significantly negatively associated with hostility. The study has implications for counsellors, school psychologists and policy makers as it highlights the importance of rational group and individual counselling of rational ideas to reduce the emotional problems of students hindering their educational and personal growth.     

A Psychometric Review of Measures of Irrational Beliefs: Implications for Psychotherapy

In this study, measures of irrational beliefs based on the principles of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) were reviewed and contrasted based on psychometric characteristics and quality of guidelines for interpretation. The use of measures of irrational beliefs is an important component of the assessment of presenting problems in psychotherapy and may inform clinical decision making. Additionally, these measures are a helpful way to identify change in irrational beliefs and to measure the effectiveness of specific interventions to facilitate such change. While there are a number of measures of beliefs, there is considerable variability in their psychometric properties and utility for assessment. The majority of the tests are not produced by a publishing company, nor do they provide test manuals. The reliability and validity evidence presented in the publications varies considerably as do the size and quality of standardization samples, which impacts upon the ability to draw normative conclusions. Analyses demonstrated that most measures of irrational beliefs do not provide the evidence needed to adequately address the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (Standards; American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME] 1999). Discussion of the implications of this review for the development of future measures of irrational thinking by researchers as well as recommendations in the test selection process for an REBT practitioner is offered.     

Frustration Intolerance: Therapy Issues and Strategies

This article aims to provide an overview of the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) concept of frustration intolerance. Therapeutic issues regarding these beliefs are discussed, including engagement, the use of disputation, and behavioral techniques.     

Self-Compassion,Self-Esteem,and Irrational Beliefs

Assumptions associated with Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) suggest that self-compassion, but not self-esteem, should be incompatible with irrational beliefs and with the emotional disturbances that they produce. In this study, 184 university students responded to a self-compassion scale along with measures of irrational beliefs, self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. As expected, self-compassion correlated negatively with irrationality, predicted better mental health, and explained inverse connections of self-esteem with irrational beliefs. In support of REBT, the irrationality of low frustration tolerance also partially mediated the inverse self-compassion relationship with anxiety. Other findings for self-esteem and for the irrational belief of self-worth, nevertheless, suggested complexities for the REBT conceptual framework. These data most importantly confirmed self-compassion as part of what REBT would describe as an effective personal philosophy.