The Relationship of Trauma to Nonsexual Crimes Committed by Adolescent Sexual Abusers: A New Area of Research

In an early investigation on the topic of the relationship between trauma history and nonsexual crimes committed by sexual offenders, this study examined nonsexual crimes committed by a sample of 451 juvenile sexual abusers. More than 60% of this sample committed quite serious crimes (i.e., animal cruelty, arson, assault, burglary, car theft, drug-related crimes, or theft). Based on the delinquency literature, childhood victimization significantly predicted severity of criminal behavior for this sample. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Intimate Partner Violence and Drinking among Victims of Adult Sexual Assault

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with problem drinking. Correlates of alcohol consumption frequency and problem drinking were examined among female sexual assault survivors (N = 1,863). Data were analyzed with blockwise multiple regressions. Results show heavy alcohol consumption and problem drinking were associated with IPV history, sexual assault by strangers or acquaintances, and maladaptive coping. Physical IPV history and partner sexual assault showed distinct effects on drinking outcomes among women. Physical IPV history partially mediated the effect of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) on problem drinking. Research is needed to examine the relationship between victimization histories and drinking among female sexual assault victims. This might enable treatments and interventions to be tailored to the trauma histories of female victims.     

Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research

Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants.     

Male sexual assault victims: a selective review of the literature and implications for support services

In recent years much has been done to publicize the plight of female rape victims. However, the sexual assault of adult males has received little attention in the research literature or by the public. This paper provides a selective review of the research into the prevalence and effects of male sexual assault victims. Research shows that the effects of sexual assault on adult males are often severe. This paper also outlines findings from experimental studies that have shown that reactions towards male sexual assault victims depend on both the victim's sexual orientation and the perpetrator's gender. Finally, implications for support services are outlined. Victims of both male and female perpetrators are considered, and both gay and heterosexual victims are discussed in relation to the specific needs of these victims. The needs of transgendered victims are also briefly considered, as are the needs of the sexual partners of male sexual assault victims. This paper concludes by offering some suggestions for future research.     

Interpersonal Violence Victimization and Sexual Harassment: A Prospective Study of Revictimization

This study examined associations between past interpersonal victimization (including both child and adult victimization) and sexual harassment (SH); and it examined intervening and moderating variables of the association of past victimization with SH, including posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and job-gender context. In addition, we examined an alternative hypothesis for revictimization that abuse survivors are hyper-sensitive to perceptions of sexual harassment. Employed women residing in Kentucky (U.S.) who had received an order of protection from a male partner and who were followed-up 12 months later (n?=?445, 78 % White, mean age?=?31.98, SD?=?8.60) were selected for this analysis. SH experienced between baseline and follow-up interviews was associated with baseline assessments of child nonsexual assault experiences (r?=?0.24, p?<?0.001) and intimate partner violence victimization (r?=?0.20, p?<?0.000), demonstrating a revictimization effect. PTSS mediated the relationship between child sexual assault, child nonsexual assault and subsequent SH. Further, working in a job with a male supervisor or in a male-dominated workgroup increased associations between child nonsexual abuse and subsequent SH. No support was found for the hyper-sensitivity hypothesis. Findings are consistent with prior research that identifies sexual harassment as a form of interpersonal violence that mental health and victim service providers and researchers should include in their assessment and treatment strategies. Employers should also understand that working in male-dominated work environments compound the risk of sexual harassment for those with prior abuse histories and should be vigilant to reducing these risks.     

Language Impairment and Sexual Assault of Girls and Women: Findings from a Community Sample

Both children and adults with disabilities face increased prevalence of abuse and assault, including sexual assault. Women and girls are disproportionately the victims of sexual assault in both disabled and nondisabled populations. Communication difficulties have been identified as a factor that may increase the vulnerability of individuals with disabilities to sexual assault. However, few studies have examined whether language impairment increases risk for sexual assault. This study reports on a community sample of children with speech or language impairment, followed to age 25. Sexual assault history was assessed based on two questions from the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Posttraumatic Stress Disorder module. Women with language impairment (n = 33) were more likely than women with unimpaired language (n = 59) to report sexual abuse/assault, controlled for socioeconomic status. Sexual assault was associated with higher rates of psychiatric disorders and poorer functioning. Women with neither language impairment nor a history of sexual assault had fewer psychiatric disorders and higher functioning than women with language impairment and/or a history of sexual assault.     

A COMPARISON OF GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMS

The experiences of 44 group sexual assault victims (multiple offenders, one victim) were compared with 44 individual sexual assault victims (one offender, one victim). Sexual assaults included various degrees of sexual victimization ranging from verbal coercion to rape. Participants were located from among a national sample of 3,187 college women. Group sexual assaults, compared to individual sexual assaults, were in general more violent, involved greater resistance from the victims, and were more likely to be perpetrated by strangers or relatives and to involve an experience which met the legal definition of rape. Group sexual assaults were less likely to involve multiple episodes by the same offender(s). Group sexual assault victims were more likely than individual sexual assault victims to seek police and crisis services, to have contemplated suicide, and to have sought therapy postassault. Despite these differences, the two groups were similar in the amount of drinking and drug use during the assault and their scores on standardized measures of psychological symptoms.     

Stability of emotions for traumatic memories in acute and chronic PTSD

While memory for central factual information regarding an emotional event is considered to be relatively accurate, memory for emotions seem to be quite inaccurate (Christianson & Safer, 1995). We extended this line of research to examine memory for the emotional intensity surrounding a traumatic event (e.g., memory for the fear and horror of the event). We conducted a series of two studies. In Study 1, we examined memory for the emotional intensity of the traumatic event in recent sexual or non-sexual assault victims with acute PTSD at 2 and 12 weeks following the assault. In Study 2, we compared memory for emotional intensity in sexual and non-sexual assault victims with either acute or chronic PTSD at initial assessment and 12 weeks later. For both studies, participants were asked to recall general emotional intensity, fear intensity, and dissociative intensity of the traumatic event. Results suggested that memory for the fear of the traumatic event did not fluctuate over time. However, memory for the general emotional and dissociative intensity did fluctuate over time, decreasing for individuals with acute PTSD and increasing for individuals with chronic PTSD.     

The psychophysiological correlates of risk recognition among victims and non-victims of sexual assault

This study examined the psychophysiological correlates of risk recognition in sexual victimization. Victims and non-victims of sexual assault listened to a hypothetical date rape interaction and were asked to indicate the point at which the man had become sexually inappropriate. Subjective and objective (physiology) measures of responding as well as a measure of risk recognition in reaction to the date rape scenario were analyzed to evaluate both between and within-subjects' differences. Results showed that, relative to non-victims, victims of sexual assault displayed significant differences in risk recognition as well as both subjective and objective measures of physiological reactivity. Overall, the results indicate that altered physiological responding to relevant threat cues may be related to individuals' ability to identify and react to threatening sexual situations.     

A Closer Examination of Sexual Trauma During Deployment: Not all Sexual Traumas are Associated with Suicidal Ideation

Military personnel can be exposed to a wide range of sexual trauma while deployed, including sexual harassment and sexual assault. We examined whether different types of sexual trauma during deployment associated with recent suicidal ideation among previously deployed OEF/OIF/OND veterans admitted to trauma‐focused treatment (n = 199). More severe forms of sexual trauma (e.g., sexual assault) were significantly and positively associated with suicidal ideation. In contrast, sexual trauma involving verbal remarks (e.g., sexual harassment) was not associated with suicidal ideation. Our findings suggest that sexual harassment and sexual assault during deployment may be differentially associated with suicidal ideation.     

Social support and recovery from sexual assault: A review

This article reviews empirical studies of social support and sexual assault in order to evaluate the empirical evidence for the role of support in recovery from mental health and physical health consequences of this crime. Evidence is mixed with regard to the effect of social support, with some studies showing no significant effect and others showing positive effects of support on postassault recovery. Negative aspects of social relations (e.g., negative social reactions), while less studied, show consistent and strong negative effects on sexual assault victims. Factors that may modify the relationship of support and sexual assault outcomes are reviewed, including: assault characteristics, specific support provider factors, victim coping and functioning, preassault support network, and other postassault experiences, such as criminal justice system involvement. Limitations of existing research are noted. Suggestions for future research on the relationship of social support and sequelae of sexual assault are provided, with a focus on development of support network interventions for victims.     

Psychological distress associated with domestic violence in Northern Ireland

Several studies have noted an association between domestic violence and psychological distress. However, little empirical work has examined behavioral and psychological difficulties, especially with reference to dissociation and guilt, in victims of domestic violence in Northern Ireland. In addition, childhood abuse history has tended not to be assessed in studies conducted in the Province. Using measures designed to assess behavioral and psychological difficulties that are problematic to self and/or others (that is, Brief Symptoms Inventory, General Health Questionnaire, Guilt Inventory), dissociation (that is, Dissociative Experiences Scale, Peritraumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire) and trauma (that is, Traumatic Experiences Checklist), the current study assessed Northern Irish victims of domestic violence from shelter-type accommodation (N=33) and a comparison sample of women from the general population (N=33). The domestic violence group displayed significantly more psychological difficulties, including higher depression, anxiety and dissociation scores. Dissociative episodes at the time of an assault were related to higher on-going dissociative experiences. Finally, the domestic violence sample reported more emotional, physical, and sexual abuse in childhood than the comparison group. Despite the difficulty generalizing from victims of domestic violence in shelter-type accommodation to all victims of spousal abuse, the current results highlight the increased levels of psychological distress in those exposed to abuse by their partner.     

Are memories for sexually traumatic events "special"? A within-subjects investigation of trauma and memory in a clinical sample

According to a long-standing clinical tradition, sexually traumatic experiences are processed and recalled differently from other experiences, often leading to memory impairment. In this study, we compared the characteristics of traumatic memories for sexual violence and two other types of emotional experiences. N=44 women recruited from a local sexual trauma agency were asked to recall and describe three autobiographical events: sexual abuse/assault, a non-sexual trauma, and a positive emotional event. The characteristics of the three memory types were compared on both subjective and objective measures. Further, the potential influences of level of traumatic impact and dissociation were assessed. Results indicated that memories for sexual trauma were not impaired or fragmented relative to other memories. Instead, memories for sexual trauma were associated with a remarkably high level of vividness, detail, and sensory components. Further, high levels of traumatic impact were not associated with memory impairment. Implications for the ongoing traumatic memory debate are discussed.     

Individual,Family, Peer,and Academic Characteristics of Male Juvenile Sexual Offenders

This study examined the individual functioning, interpersonal relations, and academic performance of 115 male juveniles who were divided into 5 demographically matched groups (sexual offenders with peer/adult victims, sexual offenders with child victims, violent nonsexual offenders, nonviolent nonsexual offenders, and nondelinquent youths). Parents and youths completed self-report instruments, behavior rating inventories, and a videorecorded interaction task, and teachers completed a rating measure. Results showed that juvenile sexual offenders, like juvenile nonsexual offenders, had more behavior problems, more difficulties in family and peer relations, and poorer academic performance than did nondelinquent youths. However, juvenile sexual offenders and nonsexual offenders did not differ on any of the measures of individual or interpersonal adjustment. The implications of these findings for research, theory, and treatment are discussed.

Treatment of a four-year-old victim of incest

Abstract

A case study describing the use of behavior techniques in the treatment of a four—year—old sexual assault victim is presented. The target behaviors included eating, phobic behaviors, self—injurious behaviors, and comments made about the father (the perpetrator) and the paternal grandmother. The child's mother served as both data collector and therapist. The study demonstrates that child victims can experience a sexual assault trauma syndrome similar to that manifested by adult victims. Additionally, the findings illustrate that a simple behavioral intervention implemented by a parent can be effective in treating young sexual assault victims.     

Alcohol Consumption, Outcome Expectancies, and Victimization Status Among Female College Students

The present study examined differences in the extent of alcohol consumption and endorsement of alcohol-related outcome expectancies between victims of alcohol- or drug-related sexual assault, victims of non-alcohol- or non-drug-related sexual assault, and nonvictim controls. The alcohol consumption patterns alcohol outcome expectancies and victimization status of 176 female college students were assessed. Results indicated that relative to nonvictims and victims of non-alcohol- or non-drug-related sexual assault, victims of alcohol- or drug-related sexual assault reported more frequent and greater alcohol consumption and a greater extent of endorsement of alcohol outcome expectancies. Furthermore. extent of alcohol consumption was associated with different alcohol expectancy outcomes for each group. Implications for the prevention of sexual assault and directions for future research are discussed.     

Understanding Intimate Partner Sexual Assaults: Findings from Sexual Assault Kits

ABSTRACT

In 2013, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, began DNA testing and investigating nearly 5000 previously unsubmitted sexual assault kits (SAKs) from 1993 through 2009. We examined case files from a sample of SAKs that were tested but not previously adjudicated (n = 429). More than 10% (n = 45) involved victims who reported to police that a former or current intimate partner sexually assaulted them. This article integrates the available data on the offenders, the victims, the initial investigation, and the specifics of the assaults to provide a more complete understanding of intimate partner sexual assault (IPSA). More than one-third of the IPSA offenders were serial sex offenders; that is, the offenders sexually assaulted an intimate partner and another person(s). Comparing IPSAs to all other sexual assaults, IPSAs more frequently involved bodily force, less frequently involved a weapon, and IPSA investigations were more frequently closed because (1) the victims stated they lied or the police doubted the victims and (2) the victims declined to prosecute. The most common sequencing of events was a demand for sex by the offender followed by a verbal refusal by the victim and the use of bodily force in the sexual assault. The findings, however, indicate a great deal of variation in the sequencing of events surrounding the sexual assault, with over 25% involving no physical confrontation before or after the sexual assault and no demands for sex. Unsubmitted SAK data provide a unique window into understanding the understudied and underreported issue of IPSA.     

Factor Structure of the Dissociative Experiences Scale: An Examination Across Sexual Assault Status

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) has a long history within the literature, with conflicting reports concerning its underlying components and stability across different samples. This study examined the DES factor structure using advanced analytic procedures. Additionally, the impact of sexual victimization on the underlying components of the DES was explored, in order to examine whether sexual trauma influenced the scale’s structure. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis suggested the possibility of either a 1- or 2-factor structure in DES data obtained from an unselected sample of college females. Comparison of these models using an independent validation sample in Study 2 observed a clear advantage of a 2-factor structure. Study 3 explored whether sexual assault status influenced the structure of the 2-factor DES model, using samples drawn from Studies 1 and 2. A multiple group confirmatory factor analysis supported a robust 2-factor structure for the DES irrespective of sexual assault status.     

Blame attribution in sexual victimization

The current study explored how victims and third-parties attribute blame and perpetrator motivation for actual sexual victimization experiences. Although we do not assert that victims are responsible for perpetrators’ behavior, we found that some victims do not allocate all blame to their perpetrator. We sought to examine how victims and third-parties allocate blame in instances of actual completed and attempted sexual victimization and how they perceived perpetrator motivations. Victims of completed rape (n = 49) and attempted sexual assault (n = 91), and third-parties who knew a victim of sexual assault (n = 152) allocated blame across multiple targets: perpetrator, self/victim, friends, family, and the situation. Participants also described their perceptions of perpetrator’s motivation for the sexual assault. Victims tended to assign more blame to themselves than third-parties assigned to victims. Furthermore, victims perceived perpetrators as being more sexually-motivated than third-parties did, who viewed perpetrators as more power-motivated. Results suggest that perceptions of rape and sexual assault significantly differ between victims and third-party individuals who have never directly experienced such a trauma.