The BIAS map: behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes

In the present research, consisting of 2 correlational studies (N = 616) including a representative U.S. sample and 2 experiments (N = 350), the authors investigated how stereotypes and emotions shape behavioral tendencies toward groups, offering convergent support for the behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes (BIAS) map framework. Warmth stereotypes determine active behavioral tendencies, attenuating active harm (harassing) and eliciting active facilitation (helping). Competence stereotypes determine passive behavioral tendencies, attenuating passive harm (neglecting) and eliciting passive facilitation (associating). Admired groups (warm, competent) elicit both facilitation tendencies; hated groups (cold, incompetent) elicit both harm tendencies. Envied groups (competent, cold) elicit passive facilitation but active harm; pitied groups (warm, incompetent) elicit active facilitation but passive harm. Emotions predict behavioral tendencies more strongly than stereotypes do and usually mediate stereotype-to-behavioral-tendency links.     

What triggers helping versus harming of ambivalent groups? Effects of the relative salience of warmth versus competence

According to the behavior from intergroup affect and stereotypes (BIAS) map, groups stereotyped as cold and competent receive active harm and passive facilitation, whereas groups stereotyped as warm and incompetent receive active facilitation and passive harm. Extending previous research, we conducted four studies to examine what determines helping and what determines harming behaviors toward ambivalent groups. In Study 1 (N = 58) we demonstrated that groups stereotyped as cold and competent evoke intentions of active harm due to a relative salience of their lack of warmth, whereas they elicit intentions of passive facilitation due to a relative salience of their competence. In Study 2 (N = 88) we demonstrated that groups stereotyped as warm and incompetent elicit intentions of active facilitation due to a relative salience of their warmth, whereas they elicit intentions of passive harm due to a relative salience of their lack of competence. Studies 3 (N = 54) and 4 (N = 67) replicated these findings and further demonstrated that the effects on active, but not passive, behaviors were mediated by distinct emotions. Implications for ambivalent groups are discussed.     

心理疾病内隐污名：来自单类内隐联想测验的证据

以61名大学生为被试,采用三个独立的单类内隐联想测验（SC-IAT）考察心理疾病内隐污名的构成及其内隐效应。结果发现：（1）在认知评价、情感反应、行为倾向及其三者合并的4个SC-IATs中,被试在相容任务上的反应时均显著快于不相容任务;（2）总的SC-IAT和三个独立SC-IAT的内隐效应显著;（3）65.27%的被试的内隐效应值大于0,表现出对心理疾病患者负面的内隐态度;（4）研究采用的心理疾病内隐污名SC-IAT具有较好的信、效度指标。研究表明,被试倾向于将心理疾病与消极词联结在一起,心理疾病污名的内隐效应显著;心理疾病内隐污名包括自动化的负面认知、消极情感反应和歧视倾向。     

Stereotype content and social distancing from employees with mental illness: The moderating roles of gender and social dominance orientation

Mental illness is increasingly prevalent among employees, but little is known about how these individuals are perceived at work. Using the stereotype content model as a framework, we investigated warmth and competence stereotypes associated with employees with anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder. Employees with these disorders were perceived to be low in warmth and competence, and stereotypes about individuals with anxiety were relatively more positive than those with depression or bipolar. This study also proposed and tested the extent to which stereotypes predicted work‐related social distancing intentions. We found that two characteristics moderated this relationship: gender and social dominance orientation. We discuss practical and theoretical implications as they pertain to improving the experiences and well‐being of employees with mental illness.     

Lessons from social psychology on discrediting psychiatric stigma.

Advocacy, government, and public-service groups rely on a variety of strategies to diminish the impact of stigma on persons with severe mental illness. These strategies include protest, education, and promoting contact between the general public and persons with these disorders. The authors argue that social psychological research on ethnic minority and other group stereotypes should be considered when implementing these strategies. Such research indicates that (a) attempts to suppress stereotypes through protest can result in a rebound effect; (b) education programs may be limited because many stereotypes are resilient to change; and (c) contact is enhanced by a variety of factors, including equal status, cooperative interaction, and institutional support. Future directions for research and practice to reduce stigma toward persons with severe mental illness are discussed.     

“Taking charge” of stigma: Treatment seeking alleviates mental illness stigma targeting men

This research provided a novel experimental test of mental illness stigma and reactions to treatment seeking decisions for male and female targets. In Experiment 1 (N = 420), robust stigma emerged for targets exhibiting major depressive disorder; they were rated as less likeable, competent, and hirable than comparable normatively functioning targets. These results were unaffected by target gender. In Experiment 2 (N = 322), moderated mediation analysis revealed that a depressed male target embodying masculine stereotypes by seeking professional treatment experienced less stigma than an identical male target who did not seek treatment (and respect mediated this difference). For female targets, treatment seeking did not impact respect or stigma. Implications for the gender gap in treatment seeking and relevant interventions are discussed.     

Paternalistic and Envious Gender Stereotypes: Testing Predictions from the Stereotype Content Model

In 2 studies, paternalistic and envious gender stereotypes were examined. Paternalistic stereotypes portray particular female or male subgroups as warm but not competent, whereas envious stereotypes depict some other female or male subgroups as competent but not warm. A total of 134 women and 82 men, primarily White and middle class, participated in this research. Building on the stereotype content model (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 2002), Study 1 tested the mixed-stereotypes hypothesis that many gender subgroups are viewed as high on either competence or warmth but low on the other. Study 2 additionally addressed the social-structural hypothesis that status predicts perceived competence and interdependence predicts perceived warmth. The results provided strong support for both hypotheses.     

心理疾病污名内隐测评的类别标签初探

采用单一类型内隐联想测验,考察以往研究中常用的概括化心理疾病词和具体心理疾病词作为心理疾病内隐污名间接测量概念词或类别标签的有效性。结果发现,相较于与积极词配对的任务,两类概念词与消极词（心理疾病态度词）配对的任务反应时更快,正确率更高。研究表明概括化概念和具体疾病与反映人们对心理疾病患者真实态度的消极词存在更紧密的自动联结,是人们头脑中表征心理疾病的概念词或类别标签,可作为内隐测量中的心理疾病概念词用于污名评估。     

Efficacy of a Photovoice‐based video as an online mental illness anti‐stigma intervention and the role of empathy in audience response: A randomized controlled trial

This study examined the efficacy of a Photovoice‐based video as a novel online anti‐stigma video in reducing mental illness stigma, as well as the role of empathic concern in stigma reduction. Photovoice is a grassroots process by which members of a marginalized group, such as people with a mental illness, document and convey their experience; in this study’s context, the experience of living with a mental illness and the stigma associated with this experience. Canadian undergraduate university students (n = 303; average age = 21) were randomly assigned to view either a Photovoice‐based anti‐stigma intervention video (n = 156) or a control video (n = 147). Compared to the control condition, the Photovoice‐based video was efficacious in reducing mental illness stigma, including reduced fear and anger toward people with a mental illness, decreased perceptions of dangerousness, and decreased desired social distance. In addition, the intervention was efficacious in maintaining reduced desired social distance relative to the control at 1‐month post‐intervention. Finally, empathic concern was found to mediate the relationship between the Photovoice‐based video and reduced mental illness stigma, suggesting that one way the intervention reduced mental illness stigma was by eliciting empathy in the viewer.     

An empirical examination of stigma toward mental health problems and psychotherapy use in Veterans and active duty service members

Although many Veterans and active duty service members experience mental health problems, most do not seek out any sort of mental health help. Stigma (a significant predictor of treatment-seeking) has been documented among Veterans and active duty service members; however, previous research on stigma in these groups has primarily utilized correlational and qualitative designs. The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of stigma toward mental health problems in Veterans and active duty service members using an experimental design. One hundred sixty-five Veterans and active duty service members were randomized to read a vignette that described a Veteran who either did or did not experience a mental health problem and did or did not seek psychotherapy. Results indicated that the participants held more stigmatizing attitudes toward the Veteran who was described as having a mental health problem, but not toward the Veteran who was described as seeking psychotherapy. Additionally, participants held more positive attitudes toward the Veteran, compared to the attitudes that they believed other military members would hold. Last, with this sample of Veterans and active duty service members, self-stigma toward seeking psychotherapy was found to partially mediate the relationship between perceived public stigma and attitudes. Implications for addressing stigma in military service members and Veterans are discussed.     

Stereotypes as justifications of prejudice

Three experiments investigate how stereotypes form as justifications for prejudice. The authors created novel content-free prejudices toward unfamiliar social groups using either subliminal (Experiment 1, N = 79) or supraliminal (Experiment 2, N = 105; Experiment 3, N = 130) affective conditioning and measured the consequent endorsement of stereotypes about the groups. Following the stereotype content model, analyses focused on the extent to which stereotypes connoted warmth or competence. Results from all three experiments revealed effects on the warmth dimension but not on the competence dimension: Groups associated with negative affect were stereotyped as comparatively cold (but not comparatively incompetent). These results provide the first evidence that-in the absence of information, interaction, or history of behavioral discrimination-stereotypes develop to justify prejudice.     

Ethnicity,Life Satisfaction,Stress, Familiarity,and Stigma Toward Mental Health Treatment

The authors examined the relative contribution of ethnicity, life satisfaction, level of stress, familiarity with mental health treatment, and self- and public stigma on attitudes toward mental health treatment among a diverse sample (N = 632) of adults. Results indicated that ethnicity, stress, familiarity, and self-stigma of mental illness were significant predictors of attitudes. Additionally, familiarity with mental health treatment moderated the relationship between public stigma and attitude.     

The stigma of mental illness: Explanatory models and methods for change

For people with mental illness, diminished quality of life and loss of personal goals does not result solely from the symptoms, distress, and disabilities caused by their psychiatric disorder. Quality of life and personal goals are also hindered by people who embrace the stigma that accompanies mental illness and mental health care. This paper reviews evidence of the impact of mental illness stigma and strategies for seeking to ease its impact. To achieve these goals, we (a) describe the ways in which stigma harm people with mental illness, (b) summarize models that explain the development and maintenance of these stigmatizing effects, and (c) review strategies that have been shown to decrease the impact of stigma. Concerns about stigma are on the political agendas of many mental health advocacy groups. It has recently also become the focus of extensive research. Our goal in this paper is to balance the practical concerns raised by mental health advocates against data that support or contradicts specific assertions.     

基于语义差异量表的心理疾病外显与内隐污名的结构及关系

采用语义差异法编制心理疾病污名语义差异量表,用于测量外显污名,并用语义差异量表的词对作为单类内隐联想测验的材料,测量内隐污名,用这两类材料研究外显污名与内隐污名的结构及关系。结果表明：外显污名的三维度模型具有良好的拟合度（χ²/df=2.99, RMSEA=0.075, CFI=0.918, TLI=0.902）;内隐污名的三维度模型也具有良好的拟合度（χ²/df=2.272, RMSEA=0.071, CFI=0.857, TLI=0.833）,且与外显污名的结构相同,都由认知评价、情感体验、行为反应三维度构成;心理疾病污名的外显认知评价与内隐认知评价存在显著相关（r=0.436）,外显污名与内隐污名的其它维度之间均不存在显著相关。     

Self‐Stigma,Mental Health Literacy,and Health Outcomes in Integrated Care

The authors describe research on the self‐stigma of mental illness and help seeking, mental health literacy, and health outcomes in an integrated care medical center. Results revealed that self‐stigma of mental illness and self‐stigma of seeking help had an inverse relationship with mental health literacy. No statistically significant relationships were found between health outcomes, either type of self‐stigma, and mental health literacy. The authors discuss these and other findings and offer research and counseling implications.     

Gendered Mental Disorders: Masculine and Feminine Stereotypes About Mental Disorders and Their Relation to Stigma

Research indicates that stereotypes can intersect. For example, the intersection of stereotypes about gender and mental disorders could result in perceptions of gendered mental disorders. In the current research, Studies 1 and 2 showed that people view specific disorders as being masculine or feminine. The masculine stereotype included antisocial personality disorder, addictions, and paraphilias. The feminine stereotype included eating disorders, histrionic personality disorder, body dysmorphia, and orgasmic disorder. In both studies, the perception of disorders as masculine was positively correlated with stigma. Study 3 showed that the positive correlation between masculinity and stigma also occurred when examining specific symptoms rather than full mental disorders. The findings provide further evidence for the intersection of stereotypes and indicate a novel factor in the understanding of stigma.     

Measuring Stigma Toward Mental Illness: Development and Application of the Mental Illness Stigma Scale1

Guided by theory on stigma, a Likert‐type scale was developed to measure 7 factors of attitudes toward people with mental illness: interpersonal anxiety, relationship disruption, poor hygiene, visibility, treatability, professional efficacy, and recovery. The scale was validated among college students and community members, measuring attitudes toward people with mental illness, depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. In a second application, college students completed the scale from their own perspective, then from an imagined perspective of someone with mental illness, while psychiatric patients completed the scale from their own perspective, then from an imagined viewpoint of someone without mental illness. Psychiatric patients assumed that they were stigmatized to a greater extent than was admitted by the student sample.     

社会层级的内隐刻板印象：权力与地位的不同作用

采用探测词再认范式,考察社会层级的内隐刻板印象。结果发现,在能力推理上,无论地位高低,个体对高权力推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低权力推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极;在热情推理上,无论权力高低,个体对高地位推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低地位推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极。这表明,权力和地位在热情和能力维度的刻板印象中起着不同的作用,其中权力正向预测能力,地位正向预测热情。     

心理疾病污名形成理论述评

心理疾病污名是加诸于患者身上的耻辱标记,妨碍患者的治疗和康复。心理疾病污名的成因理论包括功能主义和生物文化两个派别,污名的发展模型解释了污名的形成过程,身份威胁模型对污名的作用机制进行了阐述。通过抗议、教育和接触可以有效地减少污名。在中国开展相关研究应注重分析传统文化、心理疾病类型与污名的关系,探讨各种减少污名策略的可行性