Very brief exposure II: the effects of unreportable stimuli on reducing phobic behavior

This experiment compared the effects of exposure to masked phobic stimuli at a very brief stimulus-onset asynchrony on spider-phobic and non-phobic individuals. Participants were identified through a widely used questionnaire and a Behavioral Avoidance Test (BAT) with a live, caged tarantula to establish baseline levels of avoidance. One week later, they were individually administered one of two continuous series of masked images: spiders or flowers. Preliminary masking experiments showed that independent samples of participants from the same populations failed to recognize these stimuli. Participants in the main experiment reported ratings of subjective distress immediately before and after the exposure manipulation. Then they engaged in the BAT once again. Very brief exposure to images of spiders reduced phobic participants' avoidance of the tarantula. No effects were evidenced on subjective distress, or on non-phobic participants. Theoretical implications for the non-conscious basis of fear are discussed.     

What we fear most: A developmental advantage for threat-relevant stimuli

Fear is one of our most basic emotions. It is an important social signal and alerts us to when a situation is safe or risky. Interestingly, not all fears are created equal: Several researchers have proposed that humans develop specific fears, such as fear of threatening stimuli, more readily than others. Here we discuss three major theories of fear acquisition, and consider the possibility that some fears are privileged in learning. Second, we review a growing literature that suggests that humans have perceptual biases that quickly draw attention to threatening stimuli in the environment. In particular, we highlight recent developmental work that shows that even infants and young children respond rapidly to the presence of threat well before they acquire any threat-relevant fears. Finally, we argue that such biases may play a causal role in privileging fear learning for certain threats, and we suggest directions for future work that can clarify whether early biases in perception indeed facilitate the development of our most common fears.     

Progress in the development of a multidimensional measure of fear of failure: The performance failure appraisal inventory (pfai)

Abstract

Measuring fear of failure (FF) is a tremendous challenge for researchers and practitioners because (a) existing measures have demonstrated limited support for the validity of their score interpretations, and (b) existing measures are unidimensional while accumulating evidence suggests that FF is multidimensional. The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI) was developed to measures a set of empirically-derived congnitive-motivational-relational appraisals associated with FF. Results indicated that PFAI scores represented fears of (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) devaluing one's self-estimate, (c) losing social influence, (d) having an uncertain future, and (e) upsetting important others. Correlations with external measures of achievement goal orientations, trait anxiety, and social desirability were consistent with theoretical predictions. PFAI scores correctly classified 76.5% of participants' perceptions of underachievement.     

The renewal of extinguished conditioned fear with fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant stimuli by a context change after extinction

The acquisition, extinction, and subsequent recovery of conditioned fear can be influenced by the nature of the conditional stimulus (CS) and the context in which the CS is presented. The combined effects of these factors were examined in a differential fear-conditioning procedure with humans. Fear-relevant or fear-irrelevant CSs were followed by a shock unconditional stimulus (US) during acquisition and presented alone during extinction. The CSs were images presented upon different background contexts. Half the participants received the same context during acquisition and extinction and the remaining received different contexts. All participants received test trials in the same context as acquisition. In Experiment 1 (N=64), a renewal of shock expectancy and skin conductance responses was found during test for fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant CSs when extinction was given in a different context. In Experiment 2 (N=72), renewal for fear-relevant stimuli was enhanced when acquisition and test was given in an indoor office context and extinction in an outdoor bush context. The opposite context configuration produced the strongest renewal for fear-irrelevant stimuli. The return of extinguished conditioned fear can occur to fear-relevant stimuli that are commonly associated with clinical fears and its strength may be enhanced when the stimuli are encountered in certain contexts after extinction.     

Factor analysis and validation of a self-report measure of impaired fear inhibition

Difficulties with inhibiting fear have been associated with the emergence of anxiety problems and poor response to cognitive–behavioural treatment. Fear inhibition problems measured using experimental paradigms involving aversive stimuli may be inappropriate for vulnerable samples and may not capture fear inhibition problems evident in everyday life. We present the Fear Inhibition Questionnaire (FIQ), a self-report measure of fear inhibition abilities. We assess the FIQ’s factor structure across two cultures and how well it correlates with fear inhibition indices derived experimentally. Adolescent participants from Hong Kong and England completed the FIQ, with the English participants also completing a conditioning and extinction task to assess fear inhibition problems. Across both cultures, the FIQ showed a single factor structure and low FIQ scores, or worse fear inhibition problems, were associated with self-reports of heightened anxiety. Correlation of FIQ scores with experimental indices, whilst controlling for anxious symptoms, suggests that the FIQ represents a valid and unique measure of fear inhibition abilities. The FIQ might be used to assess more ecologically valid fear inhibition problems particularly amongst people who have or who are at risk of anxiety diagnoses.     

The influence of animal fear on attentional capture by fear-relevant animal stimuli in children

The present study demonstrated that pictures of fear-relevant animals, snakes and spiders, presented among backgrounds of other animal stimuli captured attention and interfered in the detection of a neutral target to the same extent in a large sample of unselected children (N=81). Moreover, detection of a neutral target animal was slowed more in the presence of a feared fear-relevant distracter, e.g., a snake for snake fearful children, than in the presence of a not feared fear-relevant distracter, e.g., a spider for snake fearful children. These results indicate attentional capture by phylogenetically fear-relevant animal stimuli in children and the selective enhancement of this effect by fear of these animals. These findings are consistent with current models of preferential processing of phylogenetically prepared threat stimuli and with cognitive models of anxiety that propose an enhancing effect of fear in the processing of fear-related stimuli.     

The IPIP–HEXACO scales: An alternative, public-domain measure of the personality constructs in the HEXACO model

Recently, Lee and Ashton (2004) described the HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI), a new instrument designed to assess the six dimensions observed in lexical studies of personality structure of various languages. Here, we describe the development of an alternative measure of the HEXACO factors and their facets, using the items of the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP). The scales of the resulting IPIP–HEXACO inventory showed satisfactory psychometric properties, as assessed by internal-consistency reliability, convergent and discriminant correlations with the original HEXACO-PI scales, and factor structure. We discuss the potential usefulness of the new IPIP–HEXACO inventory and its strengths and limitations.     

The dynamics of informal role development within sport teams: A case study approach

AimRecent literature suggested that informal roles can naturally arise in sport teams and impact team functioning. This case study aimed to identify the key factors involved in informal role emergence in sport teams.MethodData were collected from 27 players from one male and one female intercollegiate basketball team using multiple methods. Questionnaires were administered four times during the sport season (October–February) to assess athlete personality and informal role occupancy, and a regular season game for each team was video-recorded to objectively code athletes’ behaviors. Qualitative interviews were conducted following the end of the season with coaches and athletes from one team. Role profiles were created for each athlete, which included the information regarding his/her personality, role occupancy, and behavior frequencies. The role profiles were then organized into different role categories (e.g., task vs. social specialist) based on similarities in role occupancy, and the patterns in personality and behavior frequencies were examined within and across the categories. Interview data were analyzed thematically to complement the role profiles.ResultsMembers who occupied both task- and social-oriented informal roles were more extraverted and active, and had longer tenure compared to those who occupied no informal roles. Members specializing in task-oriented roles displayed lower extraversion and varying degrees of activity, and a social specialist was more extraverted and active. Deviant members who occupied negative roles were first-year members. The interview results suggested various person-related and contextual factors that influenced informal role development.ConclusionInformal role emergence is a complex process that occurs via an interaction of multiple factors. A conceptual framework is proposed, which offers several avenues for future research to continue to investigate role dynamics in groups.     

Correlated change of Big Five personality traits across the lifespan: A search for determinants

Correlated change between different personality traits has recently caught the attention of researchers studying personality development. We conducted two studies to examine age effects (Study 1) and effects of cognitive ability (Study 2) on this phenomenon. Results indicated that correlated change was relatively stable from adolescence through adulthood, and then increased after age 70. Second, correlated change was greater among traits that have been linked to the same developmental processes (e.g., social investment or maturation of specific neurological systems). Third, cognitive ability was negatively associated with correlated change. Collectively, our findings suggest that personality change is partly driven by broad mechanisms affecting multiple traits. Associations with age and cognitive ability provide important leads regarding the possible nature of these mechanisms.     

Attention to phobic stimuli during exposure: the effect of distraction on anxiety reduction, self-efficacy and perceived control

To replicate and extend the finding that distraction facilitates between session anxiety reduction (), 27 spider phobics underwent three 10-min sessions of in vivo exposure followed by one 10-min exposure session at a 4-week follow-up, while having either stimulus-relevant focused conversation or stimulus-irrelevant distracting conversation with the experimenter. Physiological arousal and subjective anxiety were measured during exposure, and self-efficacy, perceived control and performance on a behavioural task were measured at pre-treatment, post session-3, and follow-up. Monitoring and blunting coping styles were also measured at pre-treatment to assess their impact on treatment outcome. Despite equal physiological activation between the groups, those who underwent distracted exposure showed greater reductions in subjective fear within and between sessions, and showed greater increases in self-efficacy ratings, internal perceived control and performance on a behavioural task. Coping style did not interact with the effect of distraction or focusing during exposure, however blunters had less subjective anxiety reduction overall, particularly when they underwent focused exposure. Results are discussed in terms of the emotional processing model and self-efficacy theory.     

Scary and nasty beasts: Self-reported fear and disgust of common phobic animals

Animal phobias are one of the most prevalent mental disorders. We analysed how fear and disgust, two emotions involved in their onset and maintenance, are elicited by common phobic animals. In an online survey, the subjects rated 25 animal images according to elicited fear and disgust. Additionally, they completed four psychometrics, the Fear Survey Schedule II (FSS), Disgust Scale – Revised (DS-R), Snake Questionnaire (SNAQ), and Spider Questionnaire (SPQ). Based on a redundancy analysis, fear and disgust image ratings could be described by two axes, one reflecting a general negative perception of animals associated with higher FSS and DS-R scores and the second one describing a specific aversion to snakes and spiders associated with higher SNAQ and SPQ scores. The animals can be separated into five distinct clusters: (1) non-slimy invertebrates; (2) snakes; (3) mice, rats, and bats; (4) human endo- and exoparasites (intestinal helminths and louse); and (5) farm/pet animals. However, only snakes, spiders, and parasites evoke intense fear and disgust in the non-clinical population. In conclusion, rating animal images according to fear and disgust can be an alternative and reliable method to standard scales. Moreover, tendencies to overgeneralize irrational fears onto other harmless species from the same category can be used for quick animal phobia detection.     

The Relaxation Inventory: self-report scales of relaxation training effects

The development of a self-report measure to assess the effects of relaxation training was examined. A rigorous statistical method of scale construction consisting of a modification of the scale discrimination technique was employed, resulting in a 45-item questionnaire representing three orthogonally derived scales. The three scales, Physiological Tension, Physical Assessment, and Cognitive Tension, demonstrated adequate internal consistency with KR20 reliability coefficients of .89, .95, and .81, respectively. In a second study of predictive validity, 40 individuals were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: relaxation training, tension inducement, pre-postcontrol, or postcontrol. Univariate analysis of variance indicated significant findings for each of the three dimensions of the inventory. The Physiological Tension Scale detected significant increases in tension following tension inducement, whereas the Physical Assessment Scale and Cognitive Tension Scale detected increases in relaxation following relaxation training. Recommendations were made for future research on the inventory.     

The position of authenticity within extant models of personality

The aim of the current study was to explore where authenticity, derived from the humanistic tradition of psychology, was positioned within a number of extant models of personality. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis of data from four samples (total N = 1286) suggested that authenticity can be considered as loading on the Honesty-Humility factor of personality. These findings are discussed in terms of the wider theoretical overlaps between Honesty-Humility and psychological functioning as emphasised by the humanistic tradition of psychology.     

The reliability and validity of the panic disorder self-report: a new diagnostic screening measure of panic disorder

This study examined the Panic Disorder Self-Report (PDSR), a new self-report diagnostic measure of panic disorder based on the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). PDSR diagnoses were compared with structured interview diagnoses of individuals with generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, and panic disorder and nonanxious controls. Receiver operating characteristic analyses revealed that the PDSR showed 100% specificity and 89% sensitivity. The PDSR also demonstrated retest reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, and kappa agreement of .93 with a structured interview. Finally, the PDSR demonstrated clinical validity. Students who were identified as having panic disorder using the PDSR did not have significantly different scores on the Panic Disorder Severity Scale--Self-Report form (P. R. Houck, D. A. Speigel, M. K. Shear, & P. Rucci, 2002) than a panic disordered community sample. However, both groups had significantly higher scores than students identified as not meeting criteria for panic disorder.     

Amygdala upregulation of NCAM polysialylation induced by auditory fear conditioning is not required for memory formation, but plays a role in fear extinction

There is much interest to understand the mechanisms leading to the establishment, maintenance, and extinction of fear memories. The amygdala has been critically involved in the processing of fear memories and a number of molecular changes have been implicated in this brain region in relation to fear learning. Although neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs) have been hypothesized to play a role, information available about their contribution to fear memories is scarce. We investigate here whether polysialylated NCAM (PSA-NCAM) contributes to auditory fear conditioning in the amygdala. First, PSA-NCAM expression was evaluated in different amygdala nuclei after auditory fear conditioning at two different shock intensities. Results showed that PSA-NCAM expression was increased 24 h post-training only in animals subjected to the highest shock intensity (1mA). Second, PSA-NCAM was cleaved in the basolateral amygdaloid complex through micro-infusions of the enzyme endoneuraminidase N, and the consequences of such treatment were investigated on the acquisition, consolidation, remote memory expression, and extinction of conditioned fear memories. Intra-amygdaloid cleavage of PSA-NCAM did not affect acquisition, consolidation or expression of remote fear memories. However, intra-amygdaloid PSA-NCAM cleavage enhanced fear extinction processes. These results suggest that upregulation of PSA-NCAM is a correlate of fear conditioning that is not necessary for the establishment of fear memory in the amygdala, but participates in mechanisms precluding fear extinction. These findings point out PSA-NCAM as a potential target for the treatment of psychopathologies that involve impairment in fear extinction.     

Classical fear conditioning in the anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis

Fear conditioning represents the process by which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke fear following its repeated pairing with an aversive stimulus. Although fear conditioning has long been considered a central pathogenic mechanism in anxiety disorders, studies employing lab-based conditioning paradigms provide inconsistent support for this idea. A quantitative review of 20 such studies, representing fear-learning scores for 453 anxiety patients and 455 healthy controls, was conducted to verify the aggregated result of this literature and to assess the moderating influences of study characteristics. Results point to modest increases in both acquisition of fear learning and conditioned responding during extinction among anxiety patients. Importantly, these patient-control differences are not apparent when looking at discrimination studies alone and primarily emerge from studies employing simple, single-cue paradigms where only danger cues are presented and no inhibition of fear to safety cues is required.     

The fear of the body in psychotherapy

This paper identifies the fear of attending to and engaging with the patient's body and the therapist's body, regardless of therapeutic orientation, as a topic rarely explored in books and articles but pervasively experienced because of the cultural norms brought to the consulting room. It explores how we might name the constituent parts of this fear and describes how they inter-link. A case study then exemplifies learning about and transforming such fear in both patient and therapist. Finally, the paper offers suggestions of how therapists might increase their awareness and turn this fear into a tool which extends their range of skills.     

The relational self-concept scale: a context-specific self-report measure for adolescents.

This paper describes an alternative approach to measuring the self that directly accounts for the way individuals ruminate on their external actions in order to inform and maintain their self-image. This was achieved by designing the Relational Self-Concept Scale (RSCS), a measure that explores the role and impact that different social encounters within and around the school context have upon self-concept formation. Analysis of responses to this context-specific self-report measure, obtained from a large sample of adolescents (N = 978), confirmed that the scale is multidimensional, possesses appropriate psychometric properties, and contains a high degree of ecological validity.     

The Koala Fear Questionnaire: a standardized self-report scale for assessing fears and fearfulness in pre-school and primary school children

The Koala Fear Questionnaire (KFQ) is a standardized self-report scale for assessing fears and fearfulness in children aged between 4 and 12 years. The current article presents six studies which examined the reliability and validity of the KFQ. Study 1 (N=108) demonstrated that the visual fear scales of Koala bears as employed in the KFQ are highly comparable to the standard 3-point scales that are used in other childhood fear measures. Study 2 (N=163) provided support for the convergent validity of the KFQ in a sample of 8- to 14-year-old children. That is, the scale correlated substantially with alternative measures of childhood fear and anxiety. Study 3 (N=189) showed that the KFQ possesses good internal consistency and test-retest stability in a group of 8- to 11-year-old children. The results of Studies 4 (N=129) and 5 (N=176) indicated that the KFQ is suitable for children aged 4 to 6 years and demonstrated that the psychometric properties of the scale in younger children are highly similar to those obtained in older children. Study 6 (N=926) showed that the factor structure of the KFQ was theoretically meaningful: although the data clearly pointed in the direction of one factor of general fearfulness, spurs of the commonly found five-factor solution of childhood fear were found in the KFQ. Altogether, the KFQ seems to be a valuable addition to the instrumentarium of clinicians and researchers who are working with fearful and anxious children.     

An experimental test of stimulus estimation theory: danger and safety with snake phobic stimuli

The stimulus estimation model (Taylor & Rachman, 1994) asserts that fear overprediction stems from: (a) overprediction of the danger elements of a phobic stimulus, and (b) underprediction of existing safety resources. Using a 2x2 factorial design, with danger (high vs low) and safety (high vs low) as between-subjects variables, an experimental test of the model was conducted with 25 snake-fearful participants per condition. The four experimental conditions were matched on initial levels of snake fearfulness, as assessed by the Snake Questionnaire (SNAQ). For the 51 participants who demonstrated overprediction of fear, high danger led to reliably more fear overprediction than low danger; and low safety led to reliably more fear overprediction than high safety. The interaction between danger and safety was not statistically significant. The results offer the first convincing experimental support for the stimulus estimation model of fear overprediction.