Simultaneous Prompting and Instructive Feedback When Teaching Chained Tasks

This study evaluated the effectiveness of the simultaneous prompting procedure when teaching students with moderate to severe mental retardation a chained task (i.e., hand washing). This study also evaluated if students could acquire responses to instructive feedback stimuli presented during training sessions. The effectiveness of these procedures was assessed by using a multiple probe across students design. Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization data were collected and analyzed. Results indicated that the simultaneous prompting procedure was effective in teaching 3 of the 5 students to follow a 16-step task analysis to wash their hands. All students who met criterion maintained and generalized the skills with 100% accuracy. All students acquired some of the instructive feedback stimuli. Future research issues are discussed.     

Teaching Different Tasks Using Different Stimuli in a Heterogeneous Small Group

The effectiveness of a simultaneous prompting procedure was evaluated in a heterogeneous small group using different tasks and different stimuli for each student. Participants included four middle school students whose functioning levels ranged from typically developing to moderate and severe disabilities. A multiple probe design across behaviors and replicated across students was used. Observational learning maintenance, and generalization also were assessed. Results indicate that the procedure was successful in teaching all four students their targeted stimuli as well as some of the non-targeted stimuli (i.e., observational learning). Students maintained and generalized their information with a high degree of accuracy. Limitations of the study and future research implications are discussed.     

Comparison of simultaneous prompting and constant time delay procedures in teaching sight words to elementary students with moderate mental retardation

Simultaneous prompting (a type of antecedent prompt and test procedure) and constant time delay were compared with four students with moderate mental retardation learning expressive sight words. A parallel treatments design across word sets and replicated across students was used. For acquisition, the simultaneous prompting procedures required fewer trials, sessions, and training time to criterion and resulted in fewer student errors during daily probe and training sessions. However, maintenance data indicated mixed results across the two procedures. Reliability data (both dependent and independent variables) revealed no differences between the two procedures in terms of the teacher's accuracy in recording student responses and implementing each procedure. Future research issues are discussed.     

TEACHING SAFETY SKILLS TO HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS WITH MODERATE DISABILITIES

Teaching students with disabilities to respond appropriately to potentially dangerous situations is a useful skill that has received little research attention. This investigation taught 3 students with moderate mental retardation to remove and discard broken materials (plates, glasses) safely from (a) a sink containing dishwater, (b) a countertop, and (c) a floor. A 4th student was instructed on the sink task only. A multicomponent treatment package was used to teach the skills. Simulated materials were used initially and were replaced with broken plates and glasses. A multiple probe design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment package. The results indicated that the treatment package was effective in teaching the skills. Data were collected 1 week and 1 month following the completion of training, and indicated mixed results. No student was injured during any phase of training. Issues pertinent to teaching safety skills to students with moderate disabilities are discussed.     

DISCRIMINATION TRAINING FOR PERSONS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES: A COMPARISON OF THE TASK DEMONSTRATION MODEL AND THE STANDARD PROMPTING HIERARCHY

A comparison was made between two procedures for teaching persons with severe handicaps: (a) the task demonstration model, which is based upon a fading procedure and general case programming, and (b) the standard prompting hierarchy, a least-to-most intrusive prompting procedure commonly used to teach these individuals. Five phases were used in comparing the procedures: pretesting, training, two generalization tests, and a 6-month maintenance test. Eight students learned two discrimination tasks by each procedure, with each task involving two- or three-digit numbers. Results showed that under the task demonstration model all 8 subjects had more unprompted correct responses (about 1.5 times as many) in training, all 8 subjects had fewer errors (about 0.6 times as many) in training, all 8 subjects had more correct responding in the generalization test with untrained stimuli in the training room, 6 of 8 subjects had more correct responding with untrained stimuli in another room, a 7th had equivalent amounts, and 7 of 8 subjects had more correct responding on a 6-month maintenance test. Thus, the task demonstration model proved superior to the standard prompting hierarchy in 29 of 32 tests of correct responding. Results are discussed in terms of implications for stimulus control training strategies.     

TWO-STAGE SEQUENTIAL SELECTION PROCEDURES USING ABILITY AND TRAINING PERFORMANCE: INCREMENTAL VALIDITY OF BEHAVIORAL CONSISTENCY MEASURES

A behavioral consistency model was used to evaluate the predictive validity of ability and training performance measures as components in a two-stage pre-reject sequential selection procedure. Participants were 91 college students who completed ability tests and training relevant to an air intercept and traffic control operator task. A simulation study was conducted so that two groups could be examined: a high ability group, analogous to a screened hired employee group in an organization; and a quasi-random ability group, analogous to an applicant pool as a validation sample. The incremental validity of training performance was practically and statistically significant in the prediction of component and overall task performance after including ability as a predictor in both groups. Adding ability to the prediction of task performance after training performance had been used as a predictor had no practical effects in either sample. The validity and likely utility of using sequential procedures to select employees as well as implications of behavioral consistency measures for privacy and discrimination in employee testing are discussed. Future research directions using different types of training and employee samples are also described.     

Making heads or tails of probability: An experiment with random generators

Background. The equiprobability bias is a tendency for individuals to think of probabilistic events as ‘equiprobable’ by nature, and to judge outcomes that occur with different probabilities as equally likely. The equiprobability bias has been repeatedly found to be related to formal education in statistics, and it is claimed to be based on a misunderstanding of the concept of randomness. Aims. The aim of the present study was to examine whether experimenting with random generators would decrease the equiprobability bias. Sample. The participants were 108 psychology students whose performance was measured either immediately after taking part in a training session (n= 55), or without doing any training exercises (n= 53). Method. The training session consisted of four activities. These included generating random sequences of events, and learning about the law of large numbers. Subsequently, the participants were tested on a series of equiprobability problems, and a number of other problems with similar structure and content. Results. The results indicated that the training successfully decreased the equiprobability bias. However, this effect was moderated by participants’ cognitive ability (i.e., higher ability participants benefitted from the training more than participants with lower cognitive ability). Finally, the training session had the unexpected side effect of increasing students’ susceptibility to the representativeness heuristic. Conclusions. Experimenting with random generators has a positive effect on students’ general understanding of probability, but the same time it might increase their susceptibility to certain biases (especially, to the representativeness heuristic). These findings have important implications for using training methods to improve probabilistic reasoning performance.     

Effects of training to increase self-monitoring accuracy

We examined the effects of teaching children to monitor and record their attending behavior accurately. On the basis of their low levels of attention to task and agreement with an observer about their attending, we selected four students from a class of 11, all of whom were practicing self-recording. The classroom teacher trained the students to make their judgments about their attention to task correspond with hers. The accuracy training, which was applied according to a multiple baseline (across subjects) design, produced salutary increases in levels of attention to task. But changes in accuracy of the students' self-recording were small and unstable. Although the procedures used in this study produced high levels of reactivity, they do not support the position that accuracy in self-monitoring is required for reactivity.     

Musical Training,Bilingualism, and Executive Function: A Closer Look at Task Switching and Dual‐Task Performance

This study investigated whether musical training and bilingualism are associated with enhancements in specific components of executive function, namely, task switching and dual‐task performance. Participants (n = 153) belonging to one of four groups (monolingual musician, bilingual musician, bilingual non‐musician, or monolingual non‐musician) were matched on age and socioeconomic status and administered task switching and dual‐task paradigms. Results demonstrated reduced global and local switch costs in musicians compared with non‐musicians, suggesting that musical training can contribute to increased efficiency in the ability to shift flexibly between mental sets. On dual‐task performance, musicians also outperformed non‐musicians. There was neither a cognitive advantage for bilinguals relative to monolinguals, nor an interaction between music and language to suggest additive effects of both types of experience. These findings demonstrate that long‐term musical training is associated with improvements in task switching and dual‐task performance.     

Training self‐assessment and task‐selection skills to foster self‐regulated learning: Do trained skills transfer across domains?

Students' ability to accurately self‐assess their performance and select a suitable subsequent learning task in response is imperative for effective self‐regulated learning. Video modeling examples have proven effective for training self‐assessment and task‐selection skills, and—importantly—such training fostered self‐regulated learning outcomes. It is unclear, however, whether trained skills would transfer across domains. We investigated whether skills acquired from training with either a specific, algorithmic task‐selection rule or a more general heuristic task‐selection rule in biology would transfer to self‐regulated learning in math. A manipulation check performed after the training confirmed that both algorithmic and heuristic training improved task‐selection skills on the biology problems compared with the control condition. However, we found no evidence that students subsequently applied the acquired skills during self‐regulated learning in math. Future research should investigate how to support transfer of task‐selection skills across domains.     

Use of human-given cues by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and horses (Equus caballus)

Sixteen domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and four horses (Equus caballus) were tested for their ability to use human-given manual and facial cues in an object-choice task. Two of the four horses used touch as a cue and one horse successfully used pointing. The performance of the dogs was considerably better, with 12 subjects able to use pointing as a cue, 4 able to use head orientation and 2 able to use eye gaze alone. Group analysis showed that the dogs performed significantly better in all experimental conditions than during control trials. Dogs were able to use pointing cues even when the cuer’s body was closer to the incorrect object. Working gundogs with specialised training used pointing more successfully than pet dogs and gundog breeds performed better than non-gundog breeds. The results of this experiment suggest that animals’ use of human given communicative signals depends on cognitive ability, the evolutionary consequences of domestication and enculturation by humans within the individual’s lifetime. Received: 15 July 1999 / Accepted after revision: 10 January 2000     

Effects of three-step prompting on compliance with caregiver requests

Three-step prompting is a procedure commonly used in behavioral assessments and interventions; however, little research has evaluated the effects of this procedure on increasing children's compliance with caregiver requests. In this study, caregivers of children who demonstrated low levels of compliance were trained to use three-step prompting when presenting task requests to their children. Results indicated that training caregivers to implement this procedure decreased the frequency of caregiver-delivered prompts and increased compliance by the children.     

Teaching chained skills in a non-school setting using a divided half instructional format

This investigation evaluated the use of dyadic instructional arrangements in teaching chained skills to four students with moderate mental retardation. Each instructional dyad consisted of two students. Each of the three cooking skills was divided into two equal parts, and each student in a dyad received direct instruction on one part of the task analysis during each instructional session. During the following session, the two parts were reversed and a student received instruction on the second part. A constant time delay procedure was used to teach the targeted skills in an off-campus setting. A multiple probe design across skills and replicated across students evaluated the effectiveness of the instructional procedure and teaching arrangement. Results indicate that each of the four students learned the three cooking skills. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Computer-Presented Video Prompting for Teaching Microwave Oven Use to Three Adults with Developmental Disabilities

We evaluated the use of a video prompting procedure for teaching three adults with developmental disabilities to make popcorn using a microwave oven. Training, using a 10-step task analysis, was conducted in the kitchen of the participant’s vocational training program. During baseline, participants were instructed to make popcorn, but were given no further instructions or prompts. Video prompting consisted of first watching a video clip of a step being performed and then giving participants the opportunity to imitate that step. This prompting procedure was introduced in a delayed multiple-probe across subjects design. Following acquisition, video prompting was removed and maintenance in the absence of video prompting was assessed at 2, 6, and 10 weeks. Two of the three participants acquired the task when video prompting was introduced and performed at 80–100% correct during follow-up sessions. These data suggest that video prompting may be an effective instructional strategy for teaching daily living skills to adults with developmental disabilities.     

Effects of an adapted physical education training package on special education teacher instruction

This study investigated the impact of an adapted physical education training package on functional motor skill instruction of three special education teachers who instructed secondary students with low‐incidence disabilities. The training package emphasized teachers' use of systematic prompting and specific reinforcement teaching strategies plus adapted physical education consultation. We used a multiple baseline design and collected data on the three teachers' use of systematic prompting and specific reinforcement plans during videotaped teaching trials. We also collected data on how teachers documented their instructional strategies, and we analyzed personal reflections that teachers wrote in the journals. Results indicated that with each of the three teachers, correctly implemented functional motor skill instructional performance improved after they completed the training package.     

The combined effects of goal type and cognitive ability on performance

We tested the combined effects of goal type and cognitive ability on task performance using a moderately complex task. Business students (N = 105) worked on a 24 min class scheduling task. The results showed that participants with higher cognitive ability benefited more from the setting of a performance goal as opposed to a learning goal. The reverse pattern was true for participants with lower cognitive ability. Performance goals were more effective for participants with higher cognitive ability vis-à-vis those with lower cognitive ability. The correlation between goal commitment and performance was positive and significant as was the correlation between cognitive ability and performance.     

Community-based instruction for independent meal preparation by adults with profound mental retardation

Three adults with profound mental retardation and very limited reading skills were transitioned to community living after spending more than 20 years in a residential facility. Community-based instruction was used to teach them to independently prepare meals. Directed rehearsal and prompting procedures were used to teach them those meal preparation skills that they were unable to perform independently. We present assessment, training and followup data on the preparation of a dessert by the three participants. Following an assessment on the steps needed to prepare the dessert, training was introduced in a multiple baseline across subjects design. Results showed that the participants were able to independently prepare the dessert in up to 21 pre-training and training sessions. Monthly followup for six months showed that they were able to independently prepare the dessert in various community settings of their choice.     

Training attentional control in older adults

ABSTRACT

Recent research has demonstrated benefits for older adults from training attentional control using a variable priority strategy, but the construct validity of the training task and the degree to which benefits of training transfer to other contexts are unclear. The goal of this study was to characterize baseline performance on the training task in a sample of 105 healthy older adults and to test for transfer of training in a subset (n?=?21). Training gains after 5 days and extent of transfer was compared to another subset (n?=?20) that served as a control group. Baseline performance on the training task was characterized by a two-factor model of working memory and processing speed. Processing speed correlated with the training task. Training gains in speed and accuracy were reliable and robust (ps <.001, η²?=?.57 to .90). Transfer to an analogous task was observed (ps <.05, η²?=?.10 to .17). The beneficial effect of training did not translate to improved performance on related measures of processing speed. This study highlights the robust effect of training and transfer to a similar context using a variable priority training task. Although processing speed is an important aspect of the training task, training benefit is either related to an untested aspect of the training task or transfer of training is limited to the training context.     

Additional effects of a cognitive task on dual-task training to reduce dual-task interference

ObjectiveWhen we perform dual-tasks in daily life, task performance is generally reduced. As these reductions in performance (i.e., dual-task interference) are responsible for various accidents such as falls, the repeated practice of dual-task (i.e., dual-task training) is often implemented to reduce dual-task interference. However, the risk of various accidents increases with longer dual-task training, as dual-task interference cannot be avoided. Therefore, it is important to achieve training goals more rapidly during dual-task training. This study sought to determine whether a combination of dual-task training and cognitive tasks would accelerate training effects.DesignThe experimental design included four groups: 1) cognitive task training group, 2) dual-task training group, 3) cognitive task and dual-task training group, and 4) non training group.MethodWe assessed single- and dual-task performance before and after the 2-week training sessions. We adopted a dual-task involving knee extension and an auditory reaction, and used N-back task as a cognitive task. On the other hand, dual-task training was the same method to assess dual-task performance.ResultDual-task interference was reduced in all groups in both the tasks. However, the number of participants in the cognitive task and dual-task training group who achieved a reduction in dual-task cost was significantly higher than those in other groups.ConclusionThese findings could contribute to the development of an effective method for reducing dual-task interference and resolving issues caused by dual-task interference in daily life.